This research focuses on the Whein Town Landfill and its associated borders ( Figure 1 ). The Whein Town Landfill Facility is the largest landfill in Liberia, receiving assorted municipal solid waste from Monrovia and Paynesville. This facility is located in a small community, Whein Town, on the outskirts of Monrovia City, which is located in Montserrado County. The town lies 13 km north-east of Monrovia, 7.5 km east of Gardnersville, 3.9 km south-west of Mount Barclay, and 7 km north-north-east of Paynesville. The site falls approximately 29 N 0314899 UTM 0698921. The elevation ranges between 10 and 20 m above sea level. It is also 16 km east of the Atlantic Ocean, 12 km northwest of St. Paul River, and 4 km west of Muu Creek. The site area is approximately 10 ha in size ( MCC, 2010 ). The topography of Whein Town is a mix of low-lying terrain and hilly areas identical to the greater Monrovia region and experiences high rainfall during the rainy season and relatively dry periods during the dry season. The landfill covers roughly 25 acres and is surrounded by dispersed residential settlements and farmland. It receives an estimated 350 tons of municipal daily. It was originally expected to operate for 5 - 8 years (2008-2016), yet it is still in use today ( CDM, 2006 ; MCC, 2010 ).

The residents of this community come from various ethnic backgrounds and practice a blend of traditional Liberian customs and modern urban lifestyles. Despite infrastructure and environmental challenges, Whein Town has a strong sense of community centered around religious institutions, local markets, and communal efforts.

This research’s targeted population comprises the residents of Whein Town Community household heads. This community is geographically divided into eight Blocks: Block A, Block B, Block C, Block D, Block E, Block F, Block G, and Block H. The topography of the region influences the layout of these blocks. The landfill facility’s presence in Whein Town also has a notable impact on the population distribution across these blocks, with blocks closer to the landfill having lower population densities than the blocks farther away.

These geographic and demographic differences are crucial for a more targeted and nuanced analysis of the community’s response to the landfill’s environmental and health challenges.

The data of this research was collected between April and June 2023, during Liberia’s shift from the dry season to the early rainy season. This timing was chosen carefully to reduce seasonal biases and provide a balanced representation of conditions.

An on-site, face-to-face interview approach was used, with questionnaires distributed directly to participants in their homes. This approach was critical in getting an authentic portrayal of the current situations, allowing participants to thoroughly reflect on their circumstances.

The study employed Slovin’s formula for finite population proportion to determine an appropriate sample size of 352 respondents from the target population of the Whein Town Community. This formula was selected because it is particularly effective for studies involving finite populations, where surveying the entire population would be difficult due to time, resource, or logistical constraints, and will ensure that the sample size is large enough to accurately reflect the overall population while maintaining an acceptable level of precision and confidence in the results. In this context, selecting 352 household heads ensures that the study can capture diverse perspectives across different blocks in Whein Town, which vary in population density and environmental exposure due to the landfill. This method thus supports the study’s overall goal of obtaining valid and reliable data for assessing the environmental and health impacts on the community.

Slovin Formula $n=\frac{N}{1+N{e}^2}$

n = sample size

N = Universal population [total population of the coverage area]

e² = Margin of error

1 = is given as part of the standard formula

$n=\frac{2903}{1+2903{\left(0.05\right)}^2}$

n = 352

In calculating the study’s sample size, a 95% Confidence Level and a 5% Margin of Error were applied. These parameters ensure that the study results will be reliable and that the likelihood of the true population characteristics falling within the estimated range is high. Given that the Whein Town Community is divided into eight blocks (A through H), a proportional sampling approach was used to ensure that each block was adequately represented in the study. This method is essential because the population is unevenly distributed across the blocks. To ensure the sample is representative of the entire community, the number of respondents selected from each block is proportional to the size of that block’s population in relation to the total population.

For example, in Block A, which has 397 household heads, the formula used to calculate the proportional number of respondents is:

$\text{Block A}=\frac{397}{2903}\ast 352=48$

This means that 48 questionnaires were distributed to residents of Block A, ensuring that this block is represented according to its population size. This proportional sampling ensures that the study’s sample size of 352 household heads is distributed fairly across all eight blocks, based on each block’s population size ( Table 1 ). This method is crucial because it ensures that the study captures a broad and representative range of experiences and perspectives from across the entire community, despite the uneven distribution of the population. In doing so, it prevents the risk of over- or under-representing any particular block, allowing for a more accurate analysis of the environmental and health impacts related to the landfill across different geographic and social contexts within Whein Town.

Table 1. Record of the count of household heads in Whein Town community.

The questionnaire in this study was designed using 15 indicators: 7 of the questions related to environmental problems in Whein Town affecting the residents, and the final eight questions related to environmental mitigation schemes for reducing the effects of the environmental problems on residents of Whein Town Community. These indicators were chosen on a backdrop of a preliminary assessment of the environmental conditions of the communities. There is also a section that focuses on some personal data of respondents: gender, age bracket, education level, number of years residing in the community, and employment status. The multi-layered design of the questionnaire provides a comprehensive understanding of respondents’ perspectives, which can be utilized for a wide range of policymaking and implementation efforts.

Each responder consented to the interview and accepted that the responses were meant for research purposes and could be used to inform policymaking and implications. Each question was designed to tap into the understanding of respondents’ experiences, perspectives, and expectations of existing environmental impacts at the landfill. All the questions were close-ended. The first set of seven questions used the Likert scale and provided the options: “serious”, “fairly serious”, “not serious”, and “did not know” to respondents. This scale was meant to measure the severity and rank the order of opinions about the seriousness of the existing indicators in this bracket. The second set of eight questions used a dichotomous scale where respondents were given “Yes” and “No”, representing a direct choice between opposing choices. This scale was meant to ascertain the existing programs or infrastructure at the landfill that tend to support or minimize the existing environmental conditions. Using both scales in this study provides a broader understanding, seeks to uncover complex opinions, provides balanced analysis, and is meant to reduce possible biases ( Table 2 ).

The data obtained in this research are grouped into three categories: the demography of the respondents, the environmental conditions at the landfill, and the mitigation schemes in place to remediate the existing environmental conditions. The data were sufficiently organized, cleaned, and processed using the R statistical software (R Studio, version 4.4.1) to investigate the environmental impacts of the Whein Town Landfill Facility on residents of the Whein Town Community.

The first approach begins with the Principal Component Analysis (PCA), a method used to condense the number of variables in a dataset by combining them into smaller components. This method is significant as it uses the standard deviation in each component to explain the relationship to other components. In the end, the proportion of variance is determined. Subsequently, the cumulative proportion from one PC to another is determined, this is crucial as it presents the variations in each dataset component and gives a clue on which section of the data to focus on for capturing analytical information. This method was applied to process the feedback provided by the responders on the existing environmental conditions.

The following method was the statistical test for the dichotomous responses from the dataset of the mitigation schemes available at the landfill. This method is crucial as it determines the significant relationship between variables by assessing how observed data deviates from what is expected. In this analysis, the Test statistic was determined and used to evaluate the trueness of each response. This test was accompanied by the p-value, which is a probability that measures the strength of each response to an existing condition. This method aids this study in determining the relationships and differences between the different responses from each response to the level of implementation of each available parameter and how each supports the overall environmental wellness of the community.

Finally, a descriptive analysis was used to process the demographic data of the responders. This evaluated the characteristics of the populations and gained insights into their diverse opinions, providing extensive cross-across responses on the existing conditions at the landfill and the related available mitigation schemes.

The applications of these methods to process the various datasets in this research were informative, analytical, and significant in arriving at informed decisions and making discoveries about the situations being investigated. By applying these different methods, this research tends to adequately evaluate the environmental impacts of the Whein Town Landfill on residents of the Whein Town community.

This study researched and examined the environmental conditions existing at the Whein Town Landfill facility in Liberia, and an evaluation of the effectiveness of the mitigation measures that were structured to ameliorate the overall environmental status of the impacts of the landfill on the lives of the residents of the Whein Town Community. The targeted population was the household heads of various families that have been residing in the community for at least a year. Background information of the community had identified major environmental problems like Landfill fires, Odorous emissions, Coloration of Water in wells, Dispersed smoke and garbage spillage along haulage routes, and the encroachment of rodents and insects into the community due to the closeness of the landfill to the community. The principal component analysis used in this research was meant to streamline the different aspects of the feedback from residents of Whein Town Community about the environmental conditions affecting them due to the Whein Town Landfill facility.

The findings prove that garbage spillage along the major streets of Whein Town community was fairly serious. In similarity and according to Njoku et al. (2019) , fifty-six percent (56%) of participants living far from the Thohoyandou landfill in South Africa indicated that garbage and litter on the street were a fairly serious problem. The research also indicated that the dispersed smoke in the community due to the presence of the landfill was an issue of concern. Smokes emitted from landfills may endanger human health, particularly among susceptible groups such as children, pregnant women, the elderly, and those with pre-existing morbidity conditions ( Roy et al., 2023 ). This is particularly concerning given that smokes from landfills often contain volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and particulate matter. A graduate thesis by ( Kinuthia, 2012 ) indicated that poorly managed Dandora Landfill in Kenya emitted substantial amounts of smoke and odors, leading to respiratory problems among nearby residents and school-going kids. Also, data from this research presented that the encroachment of insects and rodents due to the proximity of the landfill to neighboring communities is a fairly serious issue. Similarly, Insects like flies, mosquitoes, cockroaches, and also rodents were found to be more abundant near Siliguri landfill sites in India due to the closeness of the landfill to the communities ( Siliguri Times, 2021 ).

Figure 6 highlights odorous emissions and noise disturbances from machinery as major concerns for the residents of Whein Town. Landfills are highly associated with anaerobic decompositions of organic waste leading to odorous emissions due to the generation of complex mixtures of gases (volatile organic compounds, methane, carbon dioxide) ( Gao et al., 2021 ; Lucernoni et al., 2016 ). Studies on the Olusosun landfill in Nigeria highlight odorous emissions as a major concern for residents living in proximity. Similar to the Whein Town landfill, odors are attributed to the decomposition of organic waste, methane generation, and open burning of waste. Residents report experiencing headaches, nausea, and sleep disturbances due to the pervasive odor ( Olawoye et al., 2019 ). This parallels the findings from Whein Town, where odorous emissions also contribute to discomfort and health concerns.

Also, as Whein Town residents are subjected to machinery noises from the landfill site, research conducted for noise mapping found that the Klotto Landfill in Pojok, Kediri, Indonesia had high noise values due to ongoing work, and these values impacted nearby residents ( Jawwad et al., 2022 ). The machinery-derived noises create a difficult environment for residents to relax, concentrate, or sleep at night leading to stress and health-related issues over time ( Jawwad et al., 2022 ). The overall effect of these disturbances can also affect the value of properties in the vicinity of the landfill ( Walsh & Mui, 2017 ).

Lastly, as shown in Figure 3 , the coloration of wells in the Whein Town community is a fairly serious program due to the landfill facility. The change in water color in wells in landfill areas is driven by leachate contamination ( Hredoy et al., 2022 ). At Al-Akeeder landfill in Jordan, leachate contamination of nearby wells resulted in water with high salinity, heavy metals, and microbial contamination ( Aljaradin, 2012 ). The affected groundwater exhibited color changes similar to those in Whein Town, indicating that the issue is not geographically confined but rather associated with inadequate landfill leachate management worldwide ( Baghanam et al., 2020 ; Teng et al., 2021 ).

The second set of data, which involves the respondents’ perspectives on the environmental measures at the landfill, was processed by the statistics test. This test is used to validate the different aspects of the respondents’ opinions about the existing environmental schemes at the Whein Town landfill that are meant to remediate related environmental problems affecting the residents of the Whein Town Community. The first component of this test, the p-value, measures the numerical strength of the residents’ views. This analysis is followed by the test statistics, which were used to evaluate the closeness or deviations of the responses from one mitigation scheme to another. These analyses show that fencing the landfill was an overwhelming success and it proves to be a remarkable remediation technique that helped solve environmental problems relating to landfills. The strategy of landfill fencing is a critical component of modern waste management strategy. Fencing around landfills can help landfill operators contain waste, reduce environmental impact, and comply with regulatory requirements ( Kansanga et al., 2020 ; Mayer et al., 2021 ).

The fumigation scheme, even though not excellent, proves to be a success in reducing some of the prevailing environmental problems the residents of Whein Town are facing due to the landfill facility. Similarly, the Pugu Kinyamwezi Landfill in Tanzania, intermittently conducts fumigation to control pests, leading to fewer complaints from residents. This demonstrates the positive impact of fumigation programs on landfill-associated health risks ( Kihampa, 2013 ). Fumigation eliminates pests in different environments and it is effective due to its ability to penetrate all areas where pests may reside ( Oladejo & Otene, 2018 ).

Another mitigation scheme with a high rating shows that a significant amount of success was made with the drainage system or surface runoff control scheme. This entails building drainages to control the surface runoff from the landfill into the communities, especially during the rainy season. The scheme seems to be a proven strategy as studies about the Malagrotta landfill in Italy show that the employment of engineered drainage and leachate collection systems helped to minimize water pollution ( Barbieri et al., 2014 ). This demonstrates the effectiveness of integrated drainage management in mitigating environmental risks ( Vaverková, 2019 ). By redirecting surface water through perimeter drains and other structures, landfills can keep leachate levels low, lowering the danger of groundwater pollution ( Feng et al., 2021 ). Drainage systems play a crucial role in protecting water resources by controlling both water and leachate systems ( Touze-Foltz et al., 2021 ) and it is a mandatory regulatory requirement ( Akinnuli et al., 2019 ; Muheirwe et al., 2022 ).

Referencing the heatmap as seen in Figure 6 , The environmental conditions at the Whein Town landfill as expressed by the residents of the Whein Town Community have been deteriorating due to the poor implementations of many of the mitigation schemes highlighted. The first variable is the covering of the garbage with soil. The low feedback from the residents shows that this mitigation strategy is in place but has been poorly implemented. Soil covering is a multifaceted technique that plays a crucial role in waste management. This method can help minimize leachate generation by reducing water infiltration into the waste ( Vaverková, 2019 ). Research findings revealed that the absence of soil covering in Mbale Landfill in Uganda led to uncontrolled waste exposure ( Turyahabwe et al., 2024 ), akin to Whein Town, while the Tampines landfill in Singapore employs daily soil covering to effectively reduce odor, pest proliferation, and leachate generation ( ESG, 2024 ). Covering the garbage can help mitigate odors emanating from the landfill by acting as a physical barrier and promoting microbial activity that can degrade odorous compounds ( Sharma et al., 2022 ).

The second variable is the alternative water supply which is meant to build water kiosks across the Whein Town community for the daily use of residents due to existing water-related pollution. Residents living near landfill areas face water supply-related challenges relating to the quality and availability of potable water ( Danthurebandara et al., 2013 ; Siddiqua et al., 2022 ). Residents near the Payatas Landfill in the Philippines suffered water scarcity due to the lack of alternative water supply ( Galing Pook, 2008 ; Wikipedia, 2024 ). while the communities near the Al-Akeeder Landfill benefitted from government-provided alternative water supplies reducing their reliance on potentially unsafe groundwater ( ISEPEI, n.d. ; Qdais et al., 2010 ). Diversifying water supply sources enhances resilience against water scarcity issues and provides a buffer during high demand or supply disruptions ( Xu et al., 2019 ). Alternative water supply systems can foster community involvement and educate residents about sustainable water use encourage more responsible behavior and strengthen communities’ ties. Adopting alternative water supply systems in landfill communities addresses immediate water needs and contributes to long-term sustainability, economic saving, and environmental health ( Al-Hazmi et al., 2024 ; Xu et al., 2019 ).

The third variable the residents opined as being poorly implemented is the Water treatment scheme for wells (periodic treatment of hand-dug wells) in the community. Hand-dug wells are vulnerable in landfill regions due to their shallow depths and susceptibility to contamination from surface water and nearby sources ( Alao, 2023 ). Similar to Whein Town, Bhalswa residents near the Bhalswa Landfill in India lack access to water treatment systems, leading to prolonged exposure to contaminated drinking water ( Times of India, 2022 ). Without proper treatment, these wells can become a conduit of waterborne diseases and expose consumers to health risks and chronic hazardous substances ( Yadav & Negi, 2023 ). Treated wells ensure that the communities living near landfill regions have access to safe, clean water, reducing the incidence of disease and improving the quality of life ( Schram & Wampler, 2018 ).

On the fourth count, the poor implementation of noise control systems is also a recipe for the many environmental problems at the Whein Town Landfill facility. This is similar to the Thohoyandou Landfill in South Africa where significant noise pollution is due to constant vehicular movement and landfill machinery, with no measures for noise abatement ( Njoku et al., 2019 ). Landfills are associated with high noise from heavy machinery and other operational equipment ( Roy et al., 2023 ). This leads to significant disturbances for residents and wildlife around landfill areas. Prolonged exposure to high noise levels can lead to hearing impairment, sleep disturbances, and increased stress among nearby residents ( Jariwala et al., 2017 ). Noise control systems can help to mitigate these risks by reducing the intensity and spread of sound from landfill operations. Such systems might include sound barriers, enclosures for machinery, and strategic landscaping, all designed to absorb or deflect noise before it reaches residential areas ( Mohamed et al., 2021 ).

The last poorly implemented mitigation scheme is the closure of the landfill. This would stop all operational activities on the landfill. Closing landfills helps mitigate adverse effects on nearby communities while restoring environmental health and public well-being ( Vaverková, 2019 ). Closing landfills reduces pollution and improves community health and quality of life by reusing these sites as recreational spaces, parks, or solar energy installations, as these projects limit pollutants and eliminate the influx of waste ( Aryampa et al., 2022 ). Unlike the Whein Town Landfill, the Smokey Mountain Landfill in the Philippines implemented its full closure plan due to prolonged environmental degradation and health impacts ( ADB, 2016 ), Converting a former landfill into an ecological preserve or renewable energy project increases property values ( Pehme & Kriipsalu, 2018 ; Szabó et al., 2017 ). It also lowers environmental risks by producing safer and more usable land. These improvements assist in transforming what was once an environmental and health hazard into a community development asset ( Nochian et al., 2016 ).