Abattoir wastes consist of several pollutants such as faeces, blood, bone, hone, fat, animal trimmings, paunch content and urine from operations, stunning or bleeding, carcass processing, and by-product processing. These abattoir wastes can be classified as solid, liquid, and gas. Odours and emissions, on the other hand, are the forms of slaughterhouse gaseous nutrient input for agricultural production including waste [8] . Abattoir waste can be detrimental to public health, animal health, and the economy of the country if they are not properly and effectively managed and controlled [9] . Abattoirs often have difficulties in disposing of, treating, and processing these wastes in an environmentally acceptable mode [3] - [5] .

The handling of wastes from Abattoir including management is based on the category of waste. Liquid Abattoir waste in abattoirs in developing nations is poorly managed. Researchers recorded blood, wash water, and intestinal fluid, which is discharged into the public drain without treatment. Scavengers visit abattoir facilities sometimes to collect the blood, boil and dry it into blood meals for animal feed [3] [4] . At present, there is no concrete arrangement for the use or management of liquid water from most abattoirs in Nigeria [5] .

The solid waste includes bones, horns, animal dung/faeces/droppings, paunch, or intestinal content. These are mainly heaped (see Figure 13 ) in the abattoir for further processing. In the facility, they constitute a nuisance due to the odour and the flies and rodents it attracts [4] [8] .

It is essential to put into consideration appropriate safe waste disposal, treatment, and management ( Figure 1 ) mechanism of an abattoir waste in a way that it will not harm the environment and its constituents.

Ogun State is located in the extreme southwestern part of Nigeria and served as the study area of this research. Geographically, the State is contained within longitudes 2˚45'E and 4˚45'E; and latitudes 6˚15'N and 7˚60'N and has a total land area of 16,762 km². The study made use of one abattoir each in Ota, Abeokuta, and Ijebu as a case study ( Figure 5 ).

The study population of this research was abattoir operators including (cow owners, operators, cleaners, and butchers). The purposive random sampling method was utilised in this study.

Data for this study was sourced using questionnaire administration, personal observation, and a one-on-one interview with some operators within the abattoir facility. The questionnaire collected personal data of respondents, the type of waste generated within the abattoir, the method of waste disposal, and management within the facility. The secondary data collection involved the use of documented literature in form of review articles, published research work, systematic reviews, and books.

The data collected from this study was analysed using descriptive statistic tools such as frequency, percentage, and mean. Represented in tables and charts.

A total number of 192 abattoir operators from the three locations (Ota, Ijebu, and Abeokuta) participated in the survey ( Table 1 ). The socio-demographic profile collected was to determine the characteristics of the operators involved in the process. Various researches conducted by [5] [7] [23] have shown that socio-economic or socio-demographic factors influence perception about waste management and disposal. Based on this, the socio-demographic profile collected and documented were gender, age, marital status, level of education, income, tribe, work involvement, and years of experience.

The gender frequency from the three areas is presented in Figure 6 . The frequency chart showed that a significant number of female were also involved in operations at the abattoir aside from the figure generated from Ota showing just 2 females out of the 48 responses. Although, studies have shown that abattoir operational works are majorly male-dominated [5] [7] . The major age of the respondents working in the abattoirs ranged from 21 to 40 years across the three study areas ( Figure 7 ) indicating youth involvement in abattoir operations with similar findings reported in the literature [2] [5] .

Recent studies emphasize the importance of income and education levels in shaping waste behaviors [24] [25] . Figure 8 reveals that the majority of respondents have attained only primary education or have no formal education across the study area. This finding aligns with research conducted by Joachim et al. [5] , which suggests that most abattoir workers lack formal education, and their tasks do not require specialized skills.

For instance, the sampled respondents worked as cow owners/sellers, laborers, butchers, and cleaners ( Figure 9 ). Figure 10 illustrates the monthly income of respondents across the three areas.

Notably, a significant percentage of abattoir operators at each location have more than five years of experience ( Figure 11 ), indicating extensive familiarity with abattoir operational practices.

The socio-demographic characteristics of the three areas suggest that a substantial proportion of respondents are well-acquainted with abattoir operations.

Analysis from observations, interviews, and questionnaire administration showed that various wastes are generated. Some of the wastes are sold while others are discarded not properly ( Figure 12 ). Buyers include farmers, industries, horticulturists, and individuals. Interviews with respondents align with research conducted by Adebowale [4] , Akanni et al. [3] , and Joachim et al. [5] , which shows that waste from slaughterhouses serves multiple purposes, such as cow dung being used as fertilizer, bones for plastic manufacturing, and blood as protein in animal feed. However, these wastes are frequently not sold or collected ( Figures 13-15 ).

The results from questionnaires on waste disposal and collection showed that there are no proper waste disposal, collection, and management practices in the study area ( Table 2 ).

In conclusion, to tackle abattoir waste management challenges in Ogun State, Nigeria, a partnership-based approach involving government, abattoir operators, management, and local communities is essential [5] . Effective waste management in Nigerian abattoirs requires a multifaceted approach integrating waste reduction, recycling, energy generation, and policy enforcement. By adopting this holistic framework, abattoirs can mitigate environmental pollution, prevent zoonotic disease transmission, and contribute to Nigeria’s renewable energy targets. This integrated approach addresses the critical gaps in existing waste management practices, promotes sustainable livelihoods, and ensures public health and environmental protection.

To address the challenges of abattoir waste management in Nigeria, it is therefore recommended that policymakers and stakeholders collaborate to establish a comprehensive national policy framework. This framework should prioritize the engagement of professionals (such as Architects, Engineers, Environmentalists, Biofuel experts, and Public Health Consultants) from design to operation, while focusing on waste recycling, biogas generation, and proper waste disposal practices. Additionally, training programs for abattoir operators on sustainable waste management practices should be implemented, and public-private partnerships encouraged to develop necessary infrastructure. Furthermore, community education and awareness campaigns should focus on promoting proper waste disposal practices, emphasizing the economic, environmental, and public health benefits of effective waste management.