The area lies within the Maasai steppe between 2.500˚, 4.00˚S, and 35.90˚, 37.80˚E ( Figure 1 ), has a mean annual rainfall of 686.7 mm, and follows the bimodal patterns [21] , with long rains between March and April and short and little rains between November and December [22] . The mean monthly minimum and maximum temperatures are 18˚C and 30˚C, respectively. The topography ranges from gently undulating plains of 600 m to 5895 m above sea level, with Mount Kilimanjaro being the highest peak [23] [24] . The montane forests that dominate the highlands give way to grasslands and savannas as one descends to lower elevations, with the vegetation varying accordingly based on height, rainfall, and edaphic factors [25] [26] . The soil is rich in nutrients and mostly volcanic in origin, making the highlands in this region ideal areas for agriculture [27] [28] . The area comprises various land use categories, such as national parks, Forest Reserves, croplands, grazing land, and settlements [22] . Northern Tanzania holds 4,218,189 people, according to the Population and Housing Census [29] , with the Maasai community making up most of the surveyed area.

We generated contour lines from the digital elevation model using Quantum Geographical Information System (QGIS version 3.32.1) to delineate the ecological range of Warburgia ugandensis (1000 - 2500 m a.s.l, Figure 1 ). We then applied stratified random sampling techniques, stratifying the potential ecological range of W. ugandensis across its native range areas (Mt. Kilimanjaro, Mt. Ketumbeine, Mt. Monduli, Mt. Gelai, and Mt. Longido) into square grids measuring 2 km × 2 km ( Figure 1 ). Using QGIS version 3.32.1, we randomly selected a total of 128 grids for sampling.

In each randomly selected grid, a sampling plot measuring 100 m × 100 m (1 ha) was established to identify W. ugandensis trees and assess the extent of harvesting for each tree encountered during the survey. Additionally, we administered open-ended questionnaires to 221 respondents living near the sampled plots after obtaining their consent. We translated the questions into Maa and Chagga, the primary languages of the Maasai and Chagga communities in Northern Tanzania. The questionnaires explored the community’s knowledge of W. ugandensis for treating various health conditions, their perceptions of the usage level of W. ugandensis products, and their awareness of conservation measures necessary to ensure the sustainable management of W. ugandensis.

We entered the data into a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet, coded and organized it, and then exported it to R software version 4.3.2 for analysis. We used the Kruskal-Wallis test to analyze variations in the extent of harvesting across the native range areas of Warburgia ugandensis. Additionally, we applied descriptive statistics to summarize the frequency of responses regarding community knowledge of W. ugandensis for treating various health conditions, community perceptions of the level of use of W. ugandensis products, and community awareness of conservation measures necessary for its sustainable management across its native range areas (Mt. Kilimanjaro, Mt. Ketumbeine, Mt. Gelai, Mt. Longido, and Mt. Monduli).

We recorded the highest number of trees (248) in Mt. Ketumbeine, which also exhibited the most extensive harvesting, with significant numbers of totally debarked trees (115), vertical bark-stripped trees (80), and root-cut trees (16) ( Table 1 ). In contrast, we recorded the highest number of intact trees (124) in Mt. Kilimanjaro out of the total 169 trees documented in this area, surpassing other native range areas of the species. The Kruskal-Wallis test revealed a highly significant difference in the extent of root cutting among these regions (p < 0.001), indicating that this unsound harvesting practice is particularly concentrated in areas such as Mt. Ketumbeine. Other types of harvesting, such as vertical bark stripping, ring debarking, and topping, appeared more evenly distributed across the native range areas of W. ugandensis, suggesting that these practices either occur uniformly or that the differences observed result from random variation ( Table 1 ). Overall, the data suggest that W. ugandensis trees face varying levels of harvesting depending on the native range areas, with root cutting being particularly concentrated in certain areas, which might require targeted conservation efforts ( Table 1 ) ( Figure 2 ).

Our results ( Table 2 ) demonstrate the diverse knowledge of Warburgia ugandensis used for treating various health conditions across its native range areas (Mt. Gelai, Mt. Ketumbeine, Mt. Kilimanjaro, Mt. Longido, and Mt. Monduli). We found that respondents most commonly reported using W. ugandensis to treat gastrointestinal disorders, with Mt. Kilimanjaro having the highest number of responses (83), followed by Mt. Ketumbeine (59) and Mt. Gelai (43). Knowledge of its use for treating coughs was also prominent, particularly in Mt. Kilimanjaro (83 responses), but significantly lower in Mt. Longido, where only two respondents mentioned it.

We observed widespread knowledge of using W. ugandensis for malaria treatment in Mt. Kilimanjaro (52 responses), Mt. Ketumbeine (45), and Mt. Gelai (33). However, fewer respondents in Mt. Monduli (16) and Mt. Longido (10) reported this knowledge. Additionally, we found that knowledge of its use for post-partum discharge was concentrated in Mt. Kilimanjaro and Mt. Ketumbeine, with minimal awareness reported in other areas.

For treating toothache, respondents in Mt. Kilimanjaro and Mt. Ketumbeine exhibited the highest levels of awareness, while other areas showed little to no recognition. Knowledge of treating pneumonia with W. ugandensis was limited, with only a few respondents in Mt. Gelai, Mt. Longido, and Mt. Monduli reporting its use. Similarly, awareness of its use for asthma was the least common, with only small numbers of respondents in Mt. Longido and Mt. Monduli reporting this application. These findings underscore regional variations in the traditional knowledge of W. ugandensis across its native range.

The results depict the perception of the level of use of W. ugandensis products across different species’ native range areas ( Table 3 ). Respondents’ perception of the level of use of species’ products was high in Mt. Kilimanjaro with (64) reporting very high use of the species’ products while in Mt. Gelai all of the (43) respondents reported very high use of the species’ products. None of the respondents reported “High” or “Moderately high” usage of the species products in Mt. Monduli and Mt. Gelai suggesting a widespread perception of very high species utilization in these areas. The reported results indicate that W. ugandensis products are highly valued and widely used in these regions. In contrast, the perception at Mt. Ketumbeine and Mt. Longido shows some variation. At Mt. Ketumbeine, while the majority of respondents (49) also perceive the usage as Very high, 8 respondents rated the usage as moderately high and 1 as High. This indicates a slightly more varied perception of the usage levels, though still predominantly very high. At Mt. Longido, the perception is more dispersed, with 12 respondents indicating Very high usage, 4 reporting moderately high, and 1 indicating High. This suggests that while W. ugandensis products are still widely used, the extent of this usage varies compared to the other sites.

Results in ( Table 4 ) present an overview of various community measures implemented across species’ different native range areas to ensure the sustainable conservation of W. ugandensis. Results show that Mt. Kilimanjaro leads in all four categories: awareness of sustainable harvesting practices, planting W. ugandensis in homesteads, control of W. ugandensis products, and protection of its natural habitat, with the highest number of respondents mentioning these activities. Mt. Ketumbeine follows closely behind, showing strong respondents’ awareness across these areas, although not as pronounced as in Mt. Kilimanjaro. Mt. Gelai also demonstrates moderate respondents’ awareness of these conservation measures, particularly in raising awareness and planting in homesteads. However, the engagement in Mt. Longido and Mt. Monduli is considerably lower across all categories, indicating a need for increased efforts in these regions to bolster the sustainable conservation of W. ugandensis. The differences in awareness across the sites highlight the varying levels of conservation awareness and practices, with Mt. Kilimanjaro setting a strong example, while Mt. Longido and Mt. Monduli may benefit from targeted conservation initiatives.

Our findings reveal that W. ugandensis faces extensive unsustainable harvesting practices, such as root cutting and vertical bark stripping, particularly in Mt. Ketumbeine. These results align with studies by [30] [31] , who reported similar unsound practices for other medicinal plants, including Warburgia salutaris, in Southern Mozambique and Kenya, respectively. Both studies highlighted vertical bark stripping as the most prevalent practice, which is consistent with our findings. However, while [32] [33] emphasized that root cutting disrupts nutrient and water absorption and increases plant mortality, our study uniquely identified Mt. Ketumbeine as a hotspot for such practices, indicating localized harvesting pressures. In contrast to the findings by [34] , which suggested that unsustainable harvesting is equally distributed across regions, our study showed significant spatial variation. For example, Mt. Kilimanjaro, with its protective status as a national park, exhibited the highest number of intact trees, demonstrating the effectiveness of conservation interventions. These differences highlight the role of protected areas in mitigating unsustainable harvesting, as observed in studies on medicinal plants [35] [36] .

Our study showed high levels of knowledge of W. ugandensis for treating gastrointestinal disorders, malaria, and coughs, particularly in Mt. Kilimanjaro. These findings corroborate studies by [12] [13] [37] , which documented similar uses in East Africa. However, we also identified unique applications, such as its use for accelerating post-partum discharge, which have not been widely reported. This contrasts with [38] , who suggested that traditional medicinal knowledge of W. ugandensis is largely homogenous across regions. The localized variations observed in our study underscore the influence of cultural and environmental factors on the ethnobotanical knowledge base. Interestingly, while studies by [39] emphasized malaria treatment as the most common medicinal use of W. ugandensis, our findings revealed a broader application of the species, including gastrointestinal disorders and coughs, as the dominant ailments treated. This broader scope of knowledge may reflect the integration of different cultural practices in Northern Tanzania, a dynamic also noted by [38] [40] [41] across communities in East Africa.

The perception of very high usage of W. ugandensis products in Mt. Gelai and Mt. Monduli aligns with findings by [10] [42] , who reported high demand for the species in Kenya and Northern Tanzania, respectively. However, our study contrasts with [43] , who suggested that perceptions of usage are uniformly high across regions. Our results revealed variability, particularly in Mt. Longido, where perceptions of usage were less unanimous, reflecting differences in local dependency and accessibility. The high levels of W. ugandensis consumption and trade, as reported in our study, corroborate findings by [10] , which documented widespread trade of the species in local markets. This underscores the species’ cultural and economic significance, but it also raises concerns about overexploitation, a challenge highlighted by [43] in medicinal plant commercialization.

Our findings on conservation awareness demonstrated significant regional differences, with Mt. Kilimanjaro showing the highest awareness across all conservation measures. These results are consistent with studies by [44] [45] , which emphasized the role of community engagement in ensuring the sustainability of threatened medicinal plants. However, our study contrasts with [36] , who suggested a more uniform distribution of conservation awareness, as we observed lower awareness levels in Mt. Longido and Mt. Monduli. The promising levels of community awareness reported in Mt. Kilimanjaro reflect the effectiveness of existing conservation interventions, observed by [46] [47] . This suggests that targeted conservation education and sustainable harvesting programs could be expanded to regions like Mt. Ketumbeine and Mt. Longido, where awareness is less pronounced.

These findings reveal important considerations for developing conservation strategies tailored to the needs of each region [48] . Targeted efforts in Mt. Ketumbeine, where unsustainable harvesting practices are most prevalent, could include stricter harvesting controls, community education on sustainable methods, and incentives for planting W. ugandensis in controlled environments [48] - [50] . Conversely, the high level of knowledge and conservation awareness in Mt. Kilimanjaro could provide a model for best practices that could be shared with less aware communities, such as those in Mt. Longido and Mt. Monduli. Enhancing awareness of the plant’s ecological and cultural value and training communities in sustainable harvesting and planting techniques could help preserve W. ugandensis populations [51] . Furthermore, the high medicinal demand, as seen in Mt. Kilimanjaro and Mt. Gelai, underscores the need for a balanced approach to conservation that acknowledges the plant’s healthcare role while preventing overexploitation.