Palestinian Refugees (1948-1967)

Following the Nakba (the Catastrophe), the occupation of significant portions of historical Palestine by Zionist Jews, and the subsequent Palestinian exodus in 1948, the newly independent Kingdom of Jordan accommodated approximately 450,000 Palestinian refugees. This resulted in a doubling of Jordan’s population and heightened demands on its finite resources. King Abdulla I convened the Jericho Conference in December 1948, which culminated in the unification of the West Bank of the Jordan River—what remained of Palestine after the war—with the East Bank. The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan subsequently designated the enlarged territory. As a result, Jordan granted citizenship to Palestinians living on both banks of the river.

Notwithstanding their citizenship rights, refugee status remains politically significant for Palestinians, highlighting the demand for a just resolution that encompasses return and compensation. Consequently, while the designation “refugee” initially signified destitution post-war, particularly as most eligible individuals resided in refugee camps or nearby regions, it subsequently evolved into an identity reflecting a connection to one’s homeland and a demand for the exercise of rights. The refugee status signifies the importance of the international community’s obligations in burden sharing. UNRWA distributed ration cards to Palestinian refugees to access aid and UN services, including basic and vocational education, healthcare, and hardship relief. These cards have provided assistance and services to long-term refugees while also symbolizing “a temporary, unique status and a tangible representation of the UN commitment to facilitate their return to Palestine” ( Plascov, 1981 ). The British government, upon which Jordan relied economically, initially assisted Jordan by financing local development projects and facilitating employment opportunities for the Palestinian intelligentsia in oil-producing Gulf countries during the 1950s ( El-Abed, 2014 ). The United Nations, the United States, the United Kingdom, and West Germany, along with other nations, provided financial assistance to Jordan in addressing the substantial demands of state infrastructure development and managing demographic growth. The Jordanian government designated 18 funds to support refugees and provide various services, including land tenure, secondary education, sewage, water, and electricity—especially within camps.

The Iraqi Refugees (1991-2008)

Iraqis constitute the second significant wave of exiled individuals who sought refuge in Jordan from 1991 to 2008 as a direct consequence of conflicts including the 1991 Gulf War, UN sanctions, and the 2003 US-led invasion of Iraq. Initially, approximately 500,000 middle-class Iraqis arrived in Jordan in the 1990s looking for better living conditions. While many later emigrated to Western countries, about 200,000 remained in Jordan, some overstaying visas and living as illegal migrants, while others integrated into society through work in education and the private sectors. Additionally, the US invasion in 2003 caused a sharp increase in Iraqi migration, with their numbers rising to an estimated 450,000 - 750,000 by 2006 ( El-Abed, 2014 ).

This population surge placed significant economic pressure on Jordan, driving up inflation and costs for fuel, food, and housing. Recognizing the severity of the crisis, Jordan requested international support, which resulted in significant foreign aid inflows, including $750 million in 2005 ( Abdul-Hamid et al., 2015 ). Despite these efforts, the scenario emphasized the persistent difficulty of managing large displaced populations, as well as the impact on host country resources and demography ( El-Abed, 2014 ) Furthermore, consumer goods acquisitions rose sharply with an increase in property investments; international real estate transactions escalated from JD 44.7 million in mid-2004 to JD 82.8 million by mid-2005.

The purpose of the “inflated statistics” was to ensure Jordan’s development plan accommodated the needs of both Iraqi refugees and native Jordanians. Unlike the UNRWA’s mid-twentieth-century approach to utilizing funds to deliver services to Palestinian refugees living in camps and semi-camps, the nearly $400 million allocated to Jordan between 2007 and 2009 for displaced Iraqis has primarily facilitated assistance for Iraqis while significantly enhancing Jordanian infrastructure, including schools, hospitals, and water and sewer systems ( El-Abed, 2014 ).

The Syrian Refugees 2011

The Syrian refugee crisis, starting in 2011, has profoundly affected education systems in surrounding nations, especially in Jordan ( Culbertson & Constant, 2015 ). International organizations have provided significant assistance to improve educational access for Syrian refugee children in Jordan. Even with these initiatives, obstacles remain, such as overcrowded classrooms, scarce resources, and issues related to quality ( Bataineh, 2019 ). UNICEF, in collaboration with the Jordanian government, initiated the Emergency Education Response Program, successfully enrolling 130,000 Syrian children in formal education; however, at least 97,000 remain unenrolled ( Culbertson et al., 2016 ). UNICEF has introduced alternative education programs, providing 35,000 Syrian children with adaptable learning options ( Culbertson et al., 2016 ).

The Syrian refugee flood has had a big effect on Jordan, which is now home to more than 1.2 million people, putting a lot of stress on its resources ( Alshoubaki & Harris, 2018 ). Over half of the Syrian refugees in Jordan are under 15 years old, making up a big part of the population. Even though work permits are available, less than 20% are actually working, with most of them doing unofficial work ( Krafft et al., 2019 ). Jordan is having trouble with its economy, society, and safety because of the large number of refugees ( Alougili, 2019 ; Salameh et al., 2018 ).

Jordanians’ perceptions of refugees are influenced by several elements, such as unemployment, resource pressure, income levels, and nationalistic sentiments ( Ali & Ganideh, 2020 ). The crisis has altered the demographic composition of Jordan, with some regions benefiting economically from the talents and investments introduced by Syrians ( Jaber, 2016 ). However, the persistent crisis has resulted in difficulties for both refugee and host populations ( Thynat, 2018 ). Syrian children in Jordan are more often enrolled in school than their counterparts in Lebanon ( Sieverding & Calderón-Mejía, 2020 ).

Learning difficulties and disabilities are related but distinct terms with meanings that vary by region.

In the UK, “learning difficulties” encompass a wide range of cognitive impairments, replacing outdated terms like “mental handicap” ( Rittey 2003 ). These challenges, linked to central nervous system dysfunction, affect skills such as speaking, reading, and mathematics ( Hammill et al., 1987b ). Individuals with an IQ below 70 are categorized as having learning difficulties, divided into moderate (IQ 50 - 70) and severe (IQ < 50), often requiring long-term support in education and daily life ( Rittey 2003 ).

In Australia, “learning difficulties” describe students struggling with classroom expectations, while “learning disabilities” refer to a smaller group needing specialized intervention ( Elkins, 2002 ).

The US recognizes “learning disabilities” as a legal category for students requiring special services, stemming from central nervous system dysfunction, though they may coexist with other conditions ( Hammill et al., 1987b ; Jones & Wallace, 2008 ). Despite differences in terminology, addressing the challenges of inclusive education for students with learning disabilities remains a global priority ( Karr et al., 2020 ). Understanding these distinctions is vital to meeting their educational needs effectively.

Learning difficulties may hinder the abilities of children in reading, writing, speaking, listening, reasoning, and math. These challenges often influence their academic journey, social relationships, and emotional well-being ( Neeraja & Anuradha, 2014 ). Students with these challenges frequently find that tailored education programs and personal support may actually assist them in developing and addressing their individual needs ( Wardhani, 2023 ). Moreover, students with learning disabilities frequently encounter challenges in adjusting and may experience emotional difficulties stemming from their academic struggles ( Neeraja & Anuradha, 2014 ). Recognizing and addressing these challenges early is essential for effective management ( Politi & Braimioti, 2023 ). Providing effective special education for students with learning disabilities means using clear and structured teaching methods, keeping track of their progress, and working in small groups ( Vaughn & Linan-Thompson, 2003 ). Grasping how the brain works and how we learn is crucial for creating effective strategies ( Sousa, 2001 ). Learning a foreign language can be especially tough for students who face learning difficulties; it often calls for personalized strategies ( Ganschow & Sparks, 2001 ). Special education for learning difficulties requires a deep understanding of each person’s unique needs and the use of proven teaching methods.

Children with learning difficulties, especially refugee children in Jordan, face tremendous obstacles. According to studies, more than half of Jordan’s children with learning challenges have behavioral disorders, with private school students doing better than public school students ( Abu-Hamour, 2014 ; Abu-Hamour, 2016 ). Syrian refugee children with learning difficulties exhibit diverse degrees of emotional security and social competence, with gender and parental status impacting these variables ( Almakanin et al., 2021 ). Jordanian schools that host Syrian refugees lack proper inclusive education practices for students with disabilities, owing to limitations in school capacity, resources, program availability, and teacher credentials ( Muhaidat et al., 2020 ). Refugee children worldwide suffer a number of risk factors for learning difficulties, including family misconceptions, instructor stereotyping, prejudice, and trauma.

Intellectual disabilities (ID) are typically diagnosed by doctors before the age of 18, a condition that affects cognitive abilities and adaptive behaviour ( Fidler et al., 2019 ; Hepsiba & Raju, 2017 ). The population has a prevalence rate of 1% - 3% and refers to it as “mental retardation” ( Purugganan, 2018 ; Fidler et al., 2019 ). Standard assessments measure intelligence and adaptive behavior to determine intellectual disability (ID). An individual typically receives a diagnosis of ID when their IQ falls below 70, and they exhibit deficits in their ability to perform daily living tasks. Research by ( Shree & Shukla, 2016 ) and ( Hepsiba & Raju, 2017 ) supports this criterion. Intellectual disability (ID) can vary in severity, ranging from mild to profound. It affects an individual’s cognitive abilities, including their capacity to process information, solve problems, and adjust to their surroundings ( Fidler et al., 2019 ; Shree & Shukla, 2016 ). Individuals with intellectual disabilities have a slower learning pace and encounter difficulties when dealing with abstract concepts ( Shree & Shukla, 2016 ). Timely recognition is essential, as stated by the American Academy of Paediatrics, which advises conducting developmental surveillance and screening at designated stages ( Purugganan, 2018 ).

Special education strategies for children with learning and intellectual disabilities in refugee environments encounter distinct obstacles. The implementation of inclusive education, widely regarded as the most effective approach, may not always be possible in resource-constrained settings like refugee camps ( Crea et al., 2022 ). Children who have intellectual disabilities frequently display behavioral issues that can make their education more challenging ( Bakare, Ubochi, Ebigbo, & Orovwigho, 2010 ). These characteristics may encompass traits such as aggression, impulsivity, or timidity, as well as neurotic disorders and learning challenges. Although mainstreaming can have advantages, special education settings may provide protective elements and more effectively address specific requirements ( Crea et al., 2022 ). Research has indicated that employing video feedback interventions with staff teams can be effective in altering attitudes and interactions concerning children who exhibit challenging behaviors ( James et al., 2021 ). These children require comprehensive support, including medical, psychological, and pedagogical assistance, as emphasized by Furthermore, it is imperative to tackle systemic obstacles and enhance the accessibility of special education services for refugee families ( Adams & Santos, 2021 ). It is crucial to create mental health programs within schools and implement effective screening measures to identify and intervene early ( Bakare, Ubochi, Ebigbo, & Orovwigho, 2010 ).

This research paper was conducted using a systematic review approach, aiming to bring together all the existing studies on a specific topic to provide a detailed summary of the current evidence on the current special education status of refugee students with learning disabilities

Systematic reviews in the humanities and social sciences use thorough methods to bring together existing research, aiming for clarity and replicability ( Barisaux et al., 2024 ). These reviews follow steps like defining a research question, creating a search plan, gathering data, and evaluating quality. There are two main types: Systematic Literature Reviews (SLRs), which answer specific questions, and Scoping Reviews (SRs), which explore the scope of research in an area ( Barisaux et al., 2024 ). Though these reviews are often time-intensive and non-linear, they provide valuable insights into complex topics ( Barisaux et al., 2024 ). Challenges, such as handling varied data types and fixing errors in bibliographic sources, can complicate SLRs in these fields ( Vega et al., 2018 ). Still, systematic reviews are seen as a more rigorous alternative to traditional, less structured literature reviews in these disciplines ( Vega et al., 2018 ).

Starting with social aspects, understanding fate is important in influencing perspectives on disability in Jordan. Some parents perceive having a disabled child as a manifestation of divine will, which aligns with the prevalent religious and cultural beliefs in the country. People often attribute disabilities to divine punishment, the evil eye, or fate, thereby accepting them as part of God’s plan. The perspectives presented are based on a lack of understanding of disabilities and the support systems in place, blending religious beliefs with local cultural views. Consequently, families, particularly in rural regions, may respond unfavourably to a child’s disability, occasionally concealing them—a practice that persists despite advancements made over the past twenty years.

Following on, studies revealed that Jordan has substantial obstacles to delivering an inclusive education for refugee children who have an intellectual disability. Jordanian schools have deficiencies in meeting the minimal requirements for inclusive education as they grapple with inadequate resources, budgetary limitations, program availability, and teacher credentials ( Muhaidat et al., 2020 ). Teachers usually endorse the inclusion of children with minor intellectual impairments. However, they argue that existing school settings are not practical for implementing this owing to limited resources, facilities that are not accessible, insufficient training, and a lack of support from parents ( Al-Hassan et al., 2022 ). According to ( Al Khatib, 2007 ), regular education instructors in Jordan possess a moderate level of understanding about learning difficulties. Researchers found that female teachers tend to possess more knowledge on this subject than their male counterparts. Children who are Syrian refugees and have learning impairments face additional challenges with emotional stability and social competence, both of which are crucial for the learning process. Gender and parental status influence these characteristics, underscoring the need for targeted training programs to support these vulnerable students ( Almakanin et al., 2021 ).

On the other hand, Palestinian refugee students in Jordan face significant obstacles in accessing special education. Palestinian refugees from Syria encounter numerous difficulties linked to their status as refugees. Moreover, the lack of proper facilities and resources for children with special needs in the Occupied Palestinian Territories, Jordan, and Lebanon makes the challenges faced by these students even more pronounced. UNRWA schools, which serve a large number of Palestinian refugees in Jordan, may face challenges in offering adequate support to the roughly 90,000 students who could benefit from special assistance ( Sultana, 2007 ). Additionally, the unique circumstances surrounding Palestinian refugees, who have been displaced from Palestine since 1946, contribute to the intricacies of their educational needs. Even with the efforts made by organizations to create educational settings focused on children in Jordan, challenges still persist. There are around 5.8 million Palestinian refugees in Jordan, Lebanon, and other places, which really emphasizes how big this issue is.

In conclusion, the difficulties encountered by Palestinian refugee students (whose the majority have become Jordanian citizens) with special education needs in Jordan are intricate and call for thorough solutions to support their academic achievements and overall well-being. Some of the major challenges include the absence of proper qualifications and training for teachers working with special education needs (SEN), limited funding, and inadequate infrastructure. Negative attitudes from teachers and parents, along with incidents of bullying in schools, make the situation even worse. Many people are not aware enough of the special education services and indicators available in our society, and this issue is made worse by overcrowded classrooms in both UNRWA and public schools.

Similarly, the Syrian and Iraqi refugee students in Jordan face the same conditions. These include academic underachievement, behavioural difficulties, emotional traumas, overcrowded classrooms, and a lack of adequate teacher training ( Alkhawaldeh, 2018 ). For refugee children with disabilities, schools struggle to receive inclusive education, hampered by limited capacity, financial constraints, and underqualified teachers ( Muhaidat et al., 2020 ). Economic pressures also play a critical role, with families often facing low wages, labour exploitation, and high living costs, leading them to prioritise work over education ( Al-Sarayrah & Al Masalhah, 2019 ). University students encounter additional obstacles, such as financial difficulties, legal issues due to a lack of documentation, and psychological challenges ( Abdu Razak et al., 2019 ). The war’s lasting psychological impact and difficult social circumstances further intensify these issues ( Alkhawaldeh, 2018 ). Proposed solutions to these challenges include strengthening communication between schools and parents, providing more comprehensive teacher training, addressing the psychological well-being of students ( Alkhawaldeh, 2018 ), and offering financial support to families in need. Despite the severity of the obstacles, these initiatives present opportunities for improving the educational experience for refugee children in Jordan.

Several significant recommendations have been proposed in order to improve the support that is provided to refugee children, particularly those who have disabilities and students who receive education in Jordanian schools.

1) The kingdom of Jordan needs to take more steps forward in raising public awareness of individual needs, special education, learning disabilities, and/or difficulties, understanding what these needs and conditions are, and engaging all members of society to participate in the responsibility by conducting targeted awareness campaigns to educate communities on the importance of inclusion and reduce the stigma associated with disabilities, involving schools, media, and community leaders.

2) The Jordanian Ministry of Education must implement a clear policy and strategies to support and protect students with special educational needs and inclusion from negative attitudes towards them.

3) Allocating additional funding for special and inclusive education; enhancing the budget for resources, equipment, teacher training, specialists, technology, and assessments; and constructing more educational facilities by advocating for increased financial support from the government, international donors, and NGOs to improve infrastructure, provide specialised resources, and expand special education services.

4) Establishing international educational partnerships to enhance special education in schools in Jordan; conducting regular inspections for compliance. All academic institutions undergo regular inspections to verify the application of the aforementioned policies.

5) Implementing a periodic survey for continuous improvement to gather feedback from teachers, parents, students, and stakeholders, building a database to help identify the current situation and fill in the gaps.

6) Developing specialised training programs for all teachers for early identification to promote an inclusive classroom environment to cater to students with diverse needs.

7) Establishing comprehensive screening and diagnostic services using developed standardised national processes and train educators, social workers, and other professionals to detect impairments early. To guarantee a timely and effective response, including screening with normal health and education procedures, developing accessible diagnostic centres in refugee communities.

8) Establishing a comprehensive national database with an efficient system for collecting and monitoring data on refugee children with special needs and special educational needs. This system should capture details about their specific requirements, the services provided, and their progress, to inform effective policy development and decision-making.

With all my heart, I want to thank my incredible parents, whose love, sacrifices, and unwavering support have been the foundation of my journey. Your guidance has shaped who I am today, and I am forever grateful. To my beloved daughters, you are the light of my life, my greatest joy, and my endless source of strength. Every effort I make is for you to build a brighter and better future. To my dear brothers and sisters, thank you for being my constant support, my safe haven, and my unshakeable pillars of strength. Your love and belief in me have been a source of inspiration in every step I take. To the resilient people of Palestine, I dedicate this work to your unyielding spirit and enduring hope. May this land one day be free, and may peace, justice, and joy fill your hearts and homes. Your steadfastness is a reminder of the power of faith and the pursuit of what is right. Finally, to the millions of refugees around the world who endure unimaginable hardships yet hold onto hope, your strength and perseverance inspire us all to strive for a world filled with dignity and compassion. Let us continue to dream, to act, and to fight for a future where every soul can live in peace, freedom, and love.