The Drug Avoidance Self-Efficacy Scale (DASES) ( Martin et al., 1995 ) was originally published in English, consisting of 16 items to measure abstinence self-efficacy across different high-risk situations. For each item, participants were asked to rate their level of confidence (self-efficacy) in their ability to refrain from using drugs in a given situation after imagining themselves in that scenario based on the Likert scale of seven points from 1 = “certainly no” to 7 = “certainly yes”. The following items are recoded (7 = 1; 6 = 2; 5 = 3; 3 = 5; 2 = 6; 1 = 7) before scoring: 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12 and 16. All 16 items are summed together to get the final score. A sample of 373 young multiple drug users between the ages of 16 and 30 was used to evaluate the properties of the scale. Cronbach’s alpha was 0.91 and approximately 44.4% of the variance in the criterion groups was accounted for the corrected item-total correlation, which ranged from 0.25 to 0.66 ( Martin et al., 1995 ).

Permission was obtained from the Ethics Committee for Research Involving Human Subjects of Universiti Putra Malaysia [JKEUPM-2023-053] and received permission from National Anti-Drugs Agency (NADA) to conduct this study on the residents of Narcotics Addiction Rehabilitation Centres (PUSPEN) Sungai Besi, Selangor, Malaysia. The process included the collection and use of data or reporting of findings. Consent from the participants was obtained before the participants answered the survey. The participants were also informed about the purpose of the research and assured of their right to refuse to participate or withdraw from the study at any time without any penalty imposed.

Trained research assistants reduce the risk of assessment bias with the administration of DASES. Only 30 minutes were given for the participants to complete the questionnaires. Demographic data, such as age, gender, race, religion, education level, status, household income, mental health status, and status of other drugs taken, were also obtained using customized data collection forms.

Two bilingual individuals with a counselling background completed the DASES questionnaire forward and backward translations. DASES’s English original was independently translated into Malay before being merged into a single Malay translation. Two other bilingual translators then retranslated this into English. Minor changes were recommended, and all translators were pleased with the Malay translations. Afterwards, an expert committee was formed to create a preliminary version of the translation, review all translated versions, and finalize both. The adaptation process was described as achieving semantic, idiomatic, experiential, and conceptual equivalence between the source and target questionnaires ( Beaton et al., 2000 ; López-Roig & Pastor, 2016 ). DASES’ final Malay translation was tested on 50 PUSPEN Sungai Besi, Selangor residents to ensure clarity and comprehensiveness. Participants were interviewed to ensure that the translation met its optimal target, and the results showed that DASES was clear and understandable to the participants. To ensure that different cultural backgrounds were equivalent, the researchers took into account translation equivalence, conceptual equivalence, and measurement equivalence (metrics), as Matsumoto (1996) suggested.

Five experts in addiction counselling who are fluent in Malay and English examined the content validity. The selection criteria of the experts are as follows: (1) possess profound knowledge in narcotic addiction counselling; (2) have related experiences for at least 7 to 37 years in the field; and (3) have produced an extensive study on the subject. All experts successfully examined the construction of the instrument and offered feedback according to the study’s objectives. They take into account specific concerns like language, culture, and the acceptance of terminology in the community that used in this instrument. A four-point expert rating scale was used, where 4 represented very relevant, 3 represented strong relevance, 2 represented weak relevance, and 1 represented not relevant.

The reliability of DASES was tested using internal consistency where Cronbach’s alpha coefficient equal to 0.70 or higher was considered satisfactory ( Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994 ).

Data were analysed using the IBM SPSS. The presented descriptive statistical data using mean values, standard deviations, and percentages for the demographic variables. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients corrected item-total correlation, and inter-item correlation matrix analysis were used to assess the internal consistency reliability. A Cronbach’s alpha of ≥0.7 and item-total correlation of >0.2 was considered statistically acceptable ( Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994 ).

Demographic information of the participants is presented in the form of descriptive data. The participant’s age ranged between 20 and 50 years old with a mean age of 32.54 years (SD = 8.79). Participants are all male, most are Malay ethnicity, attended secondary school, single, lower income group, and abusing methamphetamine and other drugs.

The process of translating DASES from English to Malay was executed with meticulous attention to accuracy and cultural relevance. Initially, two bilingual translators with counselling backgrounds independently translated the scale into Malay. Subsequently, their translations were merged into a single version. To ensure the fidelity of the translation, two other bilingual translators rendered the Malay version back into English. To ensure cultural appropriateness and relevance to the Malaysian context, experts in narcotic addiction counselling meticulously reviewed all translated versions of DASES, guaranteeing that the items accurately captured the nuances of substance abuse self-efficacy within the local cultural context.

Following the translation and review process, the Malay version of DASES was administered to a sample of 50 PUSPEN residents from Sungai Besi, Selangor, Malaysia. This step served to assess the clarity and comprehensibility of the translated items. Additionally, participants were interviewed to gauge their understanding of the scale items in terms of both language and context. The findings from these interviews revealed that the translated DASES was indeed clear and understandable to the participants, which indicates the effectiveness of the translation process in ensuring that the scale remains accessible and relevant to Malaysian individuals grappling with substance abuse issues.

The present study aimed to evaluate the content validity of DASES Malay through a rigorous expert assessment using a 4-point relevance scale. The five experts were provided with both the Malay and original English versions of DASES and were requested to rate each item based on its relevance to the domain being measured. The scale ranged from 1 (not related) to 4 (highly related).

The content validation process yielded highly favourable results, with all experts unanimously agreeing on the relevance of the items in the DASES Malay version. The Item Content Validity Index (I-CVI) was calculated and indicated strong relevance, with an impressive score of 0.975 across all items. An I-CVI value exceeding 0.79 signifies excellent relevance, further confirming the appropriateness of the translated items ( Zamanzadeh et al., 2015 ).

To assess the overall content validity of the DASES Malay version, the Scale Content Validity Index (S-CVI) was calculated, demonstrating a high level of content validity with an S-CVI value of 0.9375 ( Table 1 ). S-CVI/UA was calculated as the proportion of the number of ratings of three or four items by the total number of the scale; S-CVI/Ave was tested by taking the average of the item-level CVIs (I-CVIs). The acceptance criterion of S-CVI among instrument makers is 0.9 an excellent criterion and the numerical value of 0.80 is the lower acceptance limit of the content of the instrument ( Almanasreh et al., 2022 ; Madadizadeh & Bahariniya, 2023 ; Polit et al., 2007 ).

Strong content validity is demonstrated by the DASES Malay version, as evidenced by the high I-CVI and S-CVI scores and the strong agreement among experts. This validation affirms that the scale’s items are relevant and appropriate for assessing drug avoidance self-efficacy within the Malaysian context.

Average proportion of items judged as relevance across the five experts = 0.98.

The statistical findings presented in Table 2 demonstrate that the data under analysis is a suitable candidate for factor analysis. This is evidenced by the highly significant statistic yielded by the Bartlett Sphericity Test (χ² (120) = 456.043, p = 0.000) and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy (MSA = 0.736), which exceeded the minimum accepted threshold of.5 ( Field, 2009 ; Hair et al., 1998 ; Kaiser, 1974 ). Therefore, the sample in this study provides adequate information for conducting factor analysis.

The Bartlett test of sphericity and the KMO measure combined confirm that the DASES Malay version is well-suited to perform principal component analysis (PCA). Hence, the data set is appropriate for extracting meaningful factors underlying the self-efficacy constructs measured by the scale. The study is well-equipped to investigate the underlying structure of the DASES Malay version using factor analysis, allowing for a more in-depth understanding of its psychometric properties and utility in assessing self-efficacy in the context of drug avoidance among Malaysians.

Construct validity measures the extent to which the item in a scale all measures the same construct. The validity of the DASES was examined using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) ( Citlik Saritas & Erci, 2019 ). The factor analysis method was used to assess the construct validity of the instrument. Table 3 shows the PCA determines the factors accounting for the total variance of the specific construct. The factor analysis revealed a single factor with eigenvalues above 1.0, which accounted for 70.39% of the total variance. Table 4 shows the factor loadings, in which four components extracted appear cross-loading between the items. Generally, a factor loading of .40 is acceptable to be the lowest loading in factor analysis and can be included in the scale ( Hair et al., 1998 ; Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994 ; Stevens, 2009 ).

Extraction method: principal component analysis.

Extraction method: principal component analysis; a. 4 components extracted.

A scale should have a high degree of internal consistency, as evidenced by Cronbach’s alpha ( Streiner, 2003 ). DASES Malay version Cronbach’s alpha was 0.825, indicating this scale has good reliability ( Hair et al., 1998 ). The value of the coefficient alpha is acceptable; hence, no item was omitted ( Table 5 ).

The questionnaire forms completed by the 50 residents were used for the analyses. The DASES had an overall Cronbach’s coefficient alpha of 0.825. Values equal to or greater than 0.70 was considered satisfactory ( Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994 ).

The translation and content validity of assessment tools determine their effectiveness and applicability in different cultural contexts. In the case of the DASES Malay version, the translation process went beyond linguistic translation. The goal was to ensure that the assessment tool was relevant and easy to understand in the Malaysian context. Specifically, adaptations were made to reflect cultural nuances and linguistic differences related to substance abuse.

The original DASES scale included the word “alcohol”, which was removed in the Malay translation due to different substance abuse patterns in Malaysia compared to other countries. Alcohol consumption may not be a primary concern in Malaysia. Additionally, the word “stoned/loaded” was replaced with “high” to align with Malaysian vernacular, where “high” signifies a state of trance associated with drug intoxication. These modifications underline the importance of cultural sensitivity in translation efforts to accurately capture intended meanings. Experts involved in the translation process recognized the necessity of these adjustments to ensure that the DASES Malay version remained culturally relevant and resonated with Malaysian individuals struggling with substance abuse. Despite these modifications, the translation process was meticulous in maintaining linguistic equivalence with the original scale, thus preserving the integrity of the instrument across different language versions.

Feedback from participants supported the clarity and understandability of the DASES Malay version, confirming its efficacy as a culturally adapted assessment tool. This study builds on this foundation by contextualizing the adapted instrument within the specific beliefs and values prevalent among residents of PUSPEN Sungai Besi, Selangor, enhancing its content validity. By rooting the assessment tool in the lived experiences and cultural contexts of its target population, the adaptation process ensures the relevance and applicability of the DASES Malay version while enhancing its capacity to capture nuanced aspects of substance abuse self-efficacy within the Malaysian context. Continued efforts to validate and refine culturally adapted assessment tools are essential for advancing research and intervention strategies aimed at effectively addressing substance abuse issues within diverse cultural settings.

The DASES Malay version was found to have construct validity in this study through robust statistical analyses, indicating its effectiveness in capturing the underlying dimensions of substance abuse self-efficacy. The scale accounted for a substantial portion of the total variance (70.39%), exceeding the threshold deemed acceptable in previous research. For comparison, the original scale by ( Martin et al., 1995 ) explained only 44.4% of the variance, suggesting an improvement in explanatory power with the adapted version. Additionally, although it would be ideal for all items to have a single-factor structure, the identification of four components in the component matrix suggests some complexity in the underlying construct. Nonetheless, this does not diminish the scale’s validity. The DASES Malay version meets the criterion of high internal consistency, which ( Streiner, 2003 ) emphasized. This is evident through a strong reliability coefficient of 0.825, which aligns with established guidelines for assessing scale consistency ( Hair et al., 1998 ).

The convergence of results from variance explanation, factor analysis, and internal consistency assessment demonstrates the DASES Malay version’s validity in measuring substance abuse self-efficacy in Malaysia. These findings give confidence in the scale’s ability to accurately capture the intended construct, supporting its use in research and clinical practice. Hence, in overall, the statistical analyses conducted in this study provide empirical support for the construct validity of the DASES Malay version, affirming its reliability and effectiveness as a tool for assessing substance abuse self-efficacy. This validation lays a strong foundation for future research endeavours and interventions aimed at addressing substance abuse issues among Malaysian populations.

A reliability analysis was performed on the DASES Malay version, which resulted in a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.825. This high value indicates a high degree of consistency among the items. This finding is based on established criteria for reliability, as outlined by Hair et al. ( Hair et al., 1998 ), which consider a coefficient above 0.80 as indicative of good reliability. It is worth noting that the original DASES scale, reported by Martin et al. (1995) , had a slightly higher Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.91, emphasizing the measure’s reliability.

Furthermore, recognized measurement development standards, such as those articulated by ( Devellis, 2012 ; Yang & Green, 2011 ), indicate that a reliability level of 0.70 is appropriate for newly developed instruments. In light of these benchmarks, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient obtained in this study is greater than the minimum threshold, confirming the reliability of the DASES Malay version as a well-developed measurement tool. It indicates its consistency in evaluating substance abuse self-efficacy among Malaysian individuals. Such reliability is crucial for ensuring the accuracy of the instrument’s measurements, thereby enhancing its usefulness in both research and clinical settings.

To conclude, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the DASES Malay version meets or exceeds established reliability thresholds, indicating that it is a reliable tool for assessing substance abuse self-efficacy. This consistency highlights the instrument’s usefulness in advancing our understanding of substance abuse dynamics and informing targeted interventions in Malaysia.

Drug abuse is a pressing concern on a global scale that has driven researchers to investigate the role of self-efficacy in curbing this issue ( Citlik Saritas & Erci, 2019 ). Martin et al. (1995) identified the need for a self-efficacy scale that addresses drug-related challenges. This scale is essential in the prevention of substance abuse ( Martin et al., 1995 ). The present study introduces the Drug Avoidance Self-Efficacy Scale in Malay, which is a potentially valuable instrument for assessing self-efficacy among Malaysians dealing with drug abuse issues. The scale has demonstrated statistically acceptable levels of both reliability and validity, indicating its potential utility in research and clinical practice ( Citlik Saritas & Erci, 2019 ; Norozi et al., 2016 ). However, further investigation involving larger populations is necessary to fully evaluate the scale’s effectiveness and generalizability within diverse contexts ( Khazaee-Pool et al., 2021 ).

It is crucial to consider that drug abuse is a complex issue requiring multidimensional approaches to mitigate its adverse effects ( Sowicz et al., 2022 ; Thomasius et al., 2022 ). Therefore, the Drug Avoidance Self-Efficacy Scale in Malay might prove beneficial in efforts to curb drug abuse in Malaysia. This study’s findings could provide vital insights for policymakers, clinicians, and researchers in the development of effective interventions for drug abuse prevention and treatment.