Stress is “the experience of a perceived or real threat to mental, physical, emotion-al, and spiritual well-being” ( Selye, 1946 ). Short-term or chronic stressors are classified into social, psychological, and physical categories. According to Selye, the body reacts predictably to stress through three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. In the alarm phase, the body enters fight-or-flight mode, activating the sympathetic nervous system and releasing hormones like cortisol and adrenaline, which raise blood pressure and heart rate. If the stressor continues, the body at-tempts to adapt during the resistance phase. Ultimately, prolonged stress leads to the exhaustion phase ( Selye, 1946 ).

Stressors can be psychological (e.g., depression), biological (e.g., temperature extremes), societal (e.g., job loss), or philosophical (e.g., purpose in life). Regardless of the type, the body’s response remains consistent ( Greenberg, 1990 ). Major life changes and daily inconveniences are significant stress sources. Research by Holmes and Rahe (1967) indicates that more substantial life changes correlate with a higher likelihood of physical or mental illness, as stress is perceived as a response to change.

Richard Lazarus found that everyday problems are more harmful to health than significant life transitions, as these routine issues occur more frequently than the rare major events studied by Holmes and Rahe.

This research examines the stress faced by law enforcement professionals. Research indicates that high levels of stress among police officers can lead to poor health, increased absenteeism, burnout, and elevated risks of chronic stress, depression, heart disease, gastrointestinal issues, and substance abuse ( Morash, 2006 ). Additionally, stress contributes to early retirement and medical leave, with psychologically related medical retirements accounting for 26% of police retirements. Notably, a higher percentage of female officers retire due to psychiatric conditions compared to their male counterparts ( Morash, 2006 ).

According to the Occupational Disease Intelligence Network (ODIN) for Surveillance of Occupational Stress and Mental Illness (SOSMI), policing ranks among the top three most stressful occupations ( Collins & Gibbs, 2003 ). Interestingly, organisational issues, such as managerial structure and climate, are perceived as the most stressful, outweighing operational stresses like exposure to trauma ( Collins & Gibbs, 2003 ). While organisational aspects are the primary stressors across departments, officers in larger departments report higher stress levels.

Police officers face numerous stressors, including operational and psychological challenges stemming from their work and external pressures from the socio-political environment ( Saunders et al., 2019 ). Operational stresses and job content issues are intrinsic to law enforcement.

Robert Agnew’s general strain theory, developed in 1992, explains how stress in a person's life can lead to criminal behavior ( Davidowitz, 2017 ). The theory suggests that the type of stress experienced influences individuals’ coping strategies, which can put law enforcement officers at greater risk. This study examined how seasoned police officers managed stress during the COVID-19 pandemic, focusing on the specific stressors they faced and societal perceptions of their role. Agnew’s framework guided the research, helping to elucidate the coping mechanisms employed by officers in response to COVID-19-related stresses.

Law enforcement officials faced heightened strain during the COVID-19 pandemic, driven by negative emotions such as anger and frustration, as explained by Robert Agnew’s general strain theory. This period also saw adverse public perceptions of their roles ( Davidowitz, 2017 ).

The impact of occupational stress on police officers’ physical and mental health is under-researched. According to Wang et al., individuals with higher stress levels exhibit more negative attitudes, dissatisfaction with life and relationships, and are less capable of mitigating work-related stress effects. Since employee well-being is linked to loyalty, profitability, productivity, and reduced turnover, fostering a positive workplace environment is essential for organizational effectiveness. This can be assessed through indicators of relationship quality, happiness, mental health, and overall life satisfaction.

In December 2019, a potentially fatal COVID-19 virus was identified in Wuhan, China, affecting various body systems, particularly the respiratory system. While many experience mild symptoms and recover, severe cases can be fatal if untreated. The pandemic has significantly impacted police practices, increasing stress on officers who must balance personal and professional responsibilities amid changing government policies ( Kyprianides et al., 2020 ). High occupational stress negatively affects job satisfaction and well-being, with organizational support being crucial in mitigating mental health issues ( Viegas & Henriques, 2020 ; Eisenberger et al., 1986 ).

These challenging times have increased stress and workload on law enforcement, compounded by public demands for accountability and reform ( Caveney et al., 2019 ; Ashby, 2020) . Police officers face significant trauma exposure, leading to mental health issues: 14.6% suffer from depression, 14.2% from PTSD, 25% engage in high-risk alcohol consumption, and 9.6% experience generalised anxiety. A study found that 12% of Chinese officers during COVID-19 reported moderate-to-high anxiety, and 9% had moderate-to-high depression.

Officers, especially in public protection, experience higher compassion fatigue and burnout; female officers may be more vulnerable. Stigma around seeking help can inhibit officers from reporting mental health issues, potentially worsening their conditions ( Marshall et al., 2021 ).

Despite frequent trauma exposures, research shows that police PTSD rates are generally lower than in other professions. However, repeated exposure can lead to complex traumatic stress disorder ( Miller et al., 2021 ).

Hiring practices should prioritize qualities that foster resilience, including active coping strategies, supportive leadership, and reduced stigma. Understanding resilience factors during the COVID-19 pandemic can benefit officers and the communities they serve.

Sources of stress in law enforcement are categorized into “job content” (e.g., work schedules and hazards) and “job context” (e.g., decision-making involvement and communication). Poor mental health can result from a troubled family life, suicidal thoughts, and declining trust in law enforcement, whereas effective management has been linked to better health and performance.

Research on police officer stress has explored how gender may influence stress levels, especially in campus versus municipal departments, though there is limited literature focusing on gender in campus settings. Most studies investigate the relationship between gender and stress, with mixed findings. Some research, such as Morash (2006) , suggests female officers face higher stress levels, while others, including Harar & Morash and Norvell et al., find no significant differences. Poteyeva and Sun examined 33 studies from 1996-2006 and found weak evidence for gender differences in work-related stress. Despite the lack of significant findings, women in law enforcement may face unique pressures. Morash (2006) argues that female officers, as tokens in a male-dominated field, experience distinct challenges due to power imbalances and heightened scrutiny.

Law enforcement administrators have adapted operations to include public service roles, such as aiding in distributing COVID-19 treatments and vaccines, facilitating traffic at testing centres, and enhancing security. A study on traffic police wardens indicated that implementing coping mechanisms can positively affect their performance amid occupational stress, which remains a critical issue in the modern workforce, particularly in law enforcement. Police officers frequently encounter life-threatening situations, leading to increased anxiety, depression, and PTSD, with many at risk for severe mental health issues. Operational stress is correlated with physical health problems, including headaches and sleep disturbances, potentially leading to elevated blood pressure. Research shows that younger and female officers face higher operational stress, possibly due to inexperience and the demands of managing multiple roles.

Many researchers are exploring the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on crime rates, noting a reported 31% increase compared to pre-pandemic statistics ( Laufs & Waseem, 2020 ). However, the role of police response changes and modified protocols have yet to be fully considered. Some police departments have shifted from proactive to reactive strategies, responding only after complaints, which has correlated with rising crime rates. This shift has also resulted in unfavourable public perceptions of law enforcement. In response, police have adapted their public engagement strategies, utilising videos, posters, and online content to inform the community and assure them of ongoing crime prevention efforts.

It’s unrealistic to eliminate stress from your life. However, you can manage it by recognising its effects and choosing how to respond. Developing healthy coping mechanisms is essential. According to Matheny et al., coping involves conscious or unconscious attempts to handle stressors. Greenberg (1990) suggests several strategies to prevent burnout:

1) Identify the benefits of your work and its significance.

2) List enjoyable activities and prioritise them.

3) Establish a support group.

4) Create a psychological self-care plan, including time management and relaxation.

5) Start a physical self-care routine with exercise and healthy habits.

6) Engage in fun activities daily to lighten your mood.

Agencies shifted their focus to serious crimes and emergencies, leading to public dissatisfaction and reduced police presence in some areas. Officers adapted by providing essential supplies and altering incident responses ( Lieber & Wolfe, 2020 ). Public scrutiny increased as new safety protocols diminished traditional duties, resulting in declining support for police.

Guidance from health professionals included safety measures like wearing masks and social distancing. Limited research exists on the pandemic’s effects on policing, especially regarding officers’ mental health and the potential rise in misconduct due to increased organisational pressures. Post-pandemic, there’s a need for enhanced community policing and crisis intervention strategies, as well as efforts to rebuild community ties and address mental health issues. Understanding the full scope of these impacts is essential for resource allocation and effective policing moving forward.

This Study used the Operational Police Stress Questionnaire to measure the operational Stress level. A close-ended, structured questionnaire was used for the data collection. The mode of collection was a face-to-face paper and pen survey. The PSQ-OP questionnaire was used to assess the stress level of the Police. This questionnaire was validated and tested by McGreary and Thompson. It was done to identify the Police’s level of operational Stress. The study aimed to gather information from interviews about the experiences of law enforcement personnel during the COVID-19 pandemic. A cross-sectional study was conducted in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Kathmandu has the most significant number of police officers in the country. The study population consisted of 200 police officers assigned to various traffic units in Kathmandu and Lalitpur for at least six months. The Metropolitan City Police Division provided the list of police names, and a convenience and purposive sampling technique was used to achieve the necessary sample size ( Table 1 ).

This Study’s conceptual model illustrates the connection between operational work stress and mental health risk and mental health. Using items related to Stress caused by working shifts, working alone at night, working overtime demands, getting hurt on the job, work-related activities on days off, traumatic events (such as deaths and injuries), managing social life outside of work, not having enough time to spend with friends and family, paperwork, not being able to eat at work, finding time to stay in good physical condition, fatigue, health issues related to the occupation (such as back pain), not getting the support of family and friends, forming friendships outside of work, maintaining an image in public, negative comments from the public, limitations to social life, and the feeling of being alone were all measured in this Study.

Operational Stress (PSQ-OP) has been proven to be a reliable measure of police stress. Each PSQ is brief, which lessens the workload for the officers who complete it and gives researchers more freedom to concentrate on organizational or operational Stress. Police use a 7-point Likert-type scale to rate their response to the measures. Starting at “no stress at all” (1) and ending at “a lot of stress” (7). Higher scores on the scale indicate a higher degree of perceived Police-related Stress.

Data are collected using a set questionnaire. The standardized instrument utilized by ( McCreary & Thompson, 2013 ) was created to measure operational Stress among Police. The PSQ-OP has 20 items. Police respond to the measure using a 7-point. Answers on the scale range from 1 - 7 points with 1, 2, 3 = No stress at all, 4, 5, 6 = Moderate Stress, and 7 = A lot of Stress. Higher scores on the measures indicate more significant levels of perceived Stress related to policing. To generate unique PSQ-OP scale scores, the 20 items from each PSQ are averaged and added up.

According to the operational police stress questionnaire (PSQ-OP), stress-related issues stem from “operational” factors like carrying out the job. Additionally, this scale considers the connection between life and work, frequently overlooked by other police stress measures. Likewise, secondary data are gathered from previous dissertations, journals, websites, etc.

At first, the researcher took verbal permission from the headquarters authorities to contact Police working in the field to collect data. After fulfilling the required criteria for conducting research, the police officer was approached at their stations. To collect quantitative data, after giving verbal consent and clearly describing the purpose and process of data collection, a questionnaire related to operational Stress was distributed to the respondents. Additional instructions were given as needed. Each participant took 15 - 20 minutes to complete the questionnaire. The questionnaire that served as the survey instrument was simple to administer and grade. Since a questionnaire is the most cost-effective way to gather data on this scale, participants finished the surveys at their own pace after receiving a uniform set of instructions in the cover letter. Self-administered questionnaires were used to collect data—participants and standard demographic questions filled out in the Operational Police Stress Questionnaire (PSQ-Op). The anonymous individuals were instructed to fill out the questionnaire and return it in an envelope with their address already on it. The answers and their identity were kept private.

The quantitative data file from the survey was first tabulated on Microsoft Excel, edited, and transferred to Statistical Packages for Social Science (SPSS V.21) for further coding and analysis. In SPSS, variables and value labels were attached to the data life. The variables were subjected to a frequency and percentage descriptive analysis. Chi-square tests measured the degree of association between the independent and dependent variables.

The collected information was presented in tabular form and was explained according to the variables. The operational Stress scores were analyzed per the recommendations of the PSQ-OP measuring scale. The means of the dependent and independent variables must be compared to ascertain whether there is a statistically significant difference between the variables. The stress level of officers is the dependent variable for this thesis operational), and setting (traffic police bit) and gender (male or female) are the independent factors.

The Study’s findings strongly correlate police officers’ well-being and their perception of occupational Stress. Studies indicate that job stress substantially impacts psychological health, although there is no discernible impact on family contentment. The Study’s findings are erratic and at odds with those of other earlier investigations that have demonstrated, through empirical evidence, the detrimental effects of work stress on family life. The sample used for the Study, which consisted of the most significant number of police officers assigned to administrative units, particularly those from the police headquarters’ research section, may be partially responsible for the Study’s findings.

A study conducted by Lebimoyo & Adegbite (2023) in Nigeria, indicated that police are the leaders of the society where they show the path for security, safety, and peace. When they are disturbed, the whole system of society and everyone faces challenges, so they must be a priority. The senior officers of the police department must manage the stress of their officers to work efficiently in society. In the meantime, the purpose of the study might be different from this research. Still, it implicitly indicates that during the pandemic situation, they should be trained by an expert to cope with their daily stressful activities.

Operational Stress among Nepal police officers during the COVID-19 pandemic situation.

Results from various interactions between workers and the environment where they perform their duties. Location, gender, environment, and many other factors contribute to the buildup of Stress. Job stress results from the worker’s interaction with the work conditions. Views differ on the importance of worker characteristics versus working conditions as the primary cause of job stress. The present study showed that the traffic police knew the adverse effects of air pollution on their health.

In another research conducted by Anshel & Brinthaupt (2014) , coping skills intervention can be effectively implemented with police officers as a way to help them manage their stress levels. The use of the approach-avoidance coping framework is effective in promoting practical coping skills in law enforcement. Similar to this investigation, Nepal police officers must also learn effective coping strategies to manage their stress.

A further investigation by Jhonston has consistently revealed a negative correlation between organizational Stress and overall well-being and job satisfaction. Additionally, the Study demonstrated the moderating and significant effects of social support’s involvement in the link between stressors and strain. Conversely, it was discovered that increased frequency of communication regarding certain subjects with people became detrimental rather than beneficial due to the reverse buffering effect of supervisor communication. In a study on stress-related symptoms and mental health, Collins and Gibbs (2003) employed a sample of 1206 police officers. They consistently found that workload and organizational culture were the leading causes of officer stress. Due to excessive levels of Stress, mental illness appeared to have gotten worse rather than better.

They were aware that breathing difficulties, wheezing, lung cancer, bronchial asthma, and pneumonia could all be brought on by air pollution. Studies in India have also revealed that prolonged exposure to contaminated air by traffic police increases the likelihood of developing various respiratory issues. Traffic cops must understand the problems in places like Kathmandu, particularly those related to breathing. Fewer traffic police felt like getting regular health checkups, even though most of them knew they should wear antipollution masks.

Every one of the quantitative conclusions our research presents comes from cross-sectional data collection. Cross-sectional surveys are intended to evaluate a particular characteristic within a predefined population at a given time. However, it is crucial to recognize that choosing predictor and outcome variables depends on the investigators’ hypothesis and that cross-sectional studies have a substantial problem in proving causal linkages based on the data obtained within a constrained timeframe. The cross-sectional study methodology used in this Study made it more difficult to understand the causal connections between sexual and gender based on the Study’s data; work-related Stress and job satisfaction were identified. The theoretical framework used in the investigation impacted the selection of the predictors and outcome variables.

The work stress results showed that male and female police personnel identified “operational stress” as the most stressful subscales of work-related Stress. However, male officers reported having higher stress levels on the measuring scale than females. This gender difference underscores the higher level of work pressure. To reduce mental strain and provide traffic police officers with time to recover before reporting back for duty the following day, the department should establish a cap on the total number of hours an officer may work on a given day.

Findings from the work stress subscales revealed that the two most highly rated types of work-related Stress were “operational stress” and “impact on significant others,” which were reported by both male and female police personnel. In all work stress subscales, female police officers outperformed their male colleagues, with statistically significant differences in “impact on significant others” and “operational stress.” Policing is vital to society, and the well-being of police officers should be of great concern to society. Traffic Police are constantly exposed to health hazards due to their occupation.

When comparing sociodemographic factors, it was found that individuals in the 18 - 27 age range—including single and male police officers—had elevated COVID-19 stress levels. Being the primary source of COVID-19, the majority of the officers were afraid of foreigners. Concerns about contracting COVID-19 were also reported to be elevated. In light of the current pandemic, police officers require social support and psychological evaluations.

The research found that the most common fears were those of outsiders, contamination, and compulsive checking. While there is no way to prevent Stress from these situations entirely, individuals may be able to manage their stress by strengthening their coping mechanisms through training. Owing to COVID-19-related responsibilities, police officers are significantly more likely to experience stress, anxiety, and depression. The number of working hours per day, discontent with duty hours, fear of the pandemic, and the possibility of catching the coronavirus from COVID-19 duties were all recognized risk factors.

The implication of this Study extends to contributing to a deeper understanding of these issues and guiding future research endeavors, particularly in Nepal. This research implication would contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the complex interplay between operational Stress and gender, marital status, and rank of the police force. The results of this study have significant implications for higher-level authorities in enhancing the working environment. These results highlight the need to address substantial stressors at work and as a chronic critical issue in the police work environment.

This research has examined the operational Stress among police officers during COVID-19. While exploring all these things, this research will cover the limited cities, specifically Lalitpur and Kathmandu. This research was based on the quantitative method of research, which means it is not based on their personal experience; instead, they will be forced to answer the questionnaire. Besides that, this research has not evaluated the overall mental health status of the police officer, nor has it examined their mental health history. Eventually, this research was limited to Nepal police officers; it did not include another rank’s stress level. It incorporates the rank from constable to Deputy of the General Police Officer (DIG); all together, there were five officers in this research. Finally, this research is based on the recent situation, which means it needed to dig out the past issues they have faced that might cause today’s problems.