The definition of life satisfaction has been interpreted variously by scholars, although a consensus is gradually emerging. For example, Campbell (1976) asserted that life satisfaction involves an evaluation of one’s current environment. Additionally, Shichman and Cooper (1984) described life satisfaction as an individual’s ability to lead a fulfilling life characterized by happiness and high quality. Moreover, Brandmeyer (1987) viewed life satisfaction as a cognitive assessment made in the process of achieving desired goals that relies on an understanding of the discrepancy between what is internally felt and actually experienced to determine whether an individual has adapted well to those circumstances. Fisher (1992) defined life satisfaction as the affirmation of one’s life experiences and satisfaction with the roles one plays, and Gregg (1996) considered life satisfaction to be an attitude toward life or a degree of contentment with life. Furthermore, Lemon et al. (1972) indicated that life satisfaction is the extent to which an individual feels content and happy with their overall life situation. Life satisfaction is thus a multifaceted concept that involves both the overall degree of contentment with life and the alignment between goals and achievements throughout the life course. Ford posited that life satisfaction is the degree to which individuals fulfill their desired life goals or meet their needs. Accordingly, the present study defined retirees’ life satisfaction as the subjective level of contentment with overall life circumstances, happiness, and the degree of alignment between goals and actual achievements throughout the life course.

Of the numerous theories relevant to this study’s definition of life satisfaction, the present study explored Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, the family life cycle theory, and the attachment theory, as discussed in the following sections.

1) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, self-actualization is the highest human need. Older adults often pursue higher levels of self-esteem, which lead to self-actualization. The hierarchy of needs can vary depending on an individual’s values and the challenges they face. Throughout life, individuals transition through various roles—such as marrying, having children, and aging—and their needs evolve accordingly. At each stage of life and with each role transition, individuals are prompted to develop their potential and strive toward their goals.

2) Family Life Cycle Theory

Duvall combined a theory of the life cycle with human developmental perspectives and proposed eight stages of the family life cycle, dividing the cycle on the basis of a family’s eldest child’s age. Subsequently, Carter and McGoldrick extended the theory by introducing the concept of the interaction between the individual life cycle, the family life cycle, and the multigenerational family life cycle.

3) Attachment Theory

Cicirelli (1983) suggested that as children grow to adulthood, their attachment behaviors evolve, gradually shifting toward concern for and maintenance of their attachment figures. The defining characteristic of parent–child attachment in adulthood is the continued psychological closeness maintained through contact and interaction with parents, regardless of physical or temporal distance. In attachment relationships, the bond between children and their mothers is stronger than that between children and their fathers. Therefore, older adults must learn new knowledge and attitudes to make active, positive role adjustments and enhance their ability to adapt to their environment. This study explored whether these theories are applicable to and supported in the context of retired individuals in Taiwan region.

Gerotranscendence is a neologism derived from the combination of two parts: “gero”, meaning old or aging, and “transcendence”, which is defined as surpassing cognitive limitations and transcending the constraints of the universe ( Hauge, 1998 ). Melin-Johansson et al. (2014) observed that aging is a process of changes in the physical, psychological, and social dimensions as age increases, leading to a decline in physiological functions, loss of social capabilities, and deterioration of cognitive and learning abilities, and is a natural dynamic process. On the basis of this discussion, gerotranscendence can be understood as navigating the process of change or overcoming the decline of aging. The Swedish sociologist Tornstam (1994) was the first to clearly define gerotranscendence as a shift in older adults’ perspective from a materialistic and practical worldview to a broader cosmic perspective accompanied by an increase in life satisfaction. Wadensten (2007) noted that gerotranscendence involves older adults adapting their lifestyles as they age, enabling them to calmly face changes and the process of growing old. Wang (2011) contended that gerotranscendence enables older adults to understand aging as the final stage of natural development, a process through which humans attain maturity and wisdom, leading to a sense of satisfaction with life. Thus, gerotranscendence represents the ultimate goal of aging that older adults aspire to achieve. Gerotranscendence involves acceptance of changes in the body and appearance, a serene approach to death, and the rediscovery of self-worth, all of which are accompanied by an increase in life satisfaction.

A review of the literature revealed that few foundational theories relate to gerotranscendence. Rogers (1970) posited that a person is a singular and unique individual who is constantly exchanging energy with their environmental energy field, forming an inseparable entity with the environment. This process is in constant flux, undergoing transformation with every moment of life, and the aging process is no exception. Reed (1983) offered a contrasting perspective, suggesting that as individuals reach old age, their physical functions gradually deteriorate. However, mentally, they can reframe these external physical changes as resources for adapting to their environment. This process involves integrating their life stages and reconstructing their sense of self-worth to achieve a sense of satisfaction with life. At this stage, the driving force that aids individuals in progressing toward maturity is the capacity for self-transcendence. Self-transcendence is a dynamic process and a natural phenomenon within the aging process, reflecting the growth and maturation of an individual’s spirituality. Self-transcendence expands an individual’s perspective, leading to a continual quest for the meaning of life. Even in the later stages of life, when the body has ceased growing and its functions have begun to decline, this developmental process continues, leading to interactions with the surrounding environment ( Levenson, Jennings, Aldwin, & Shiraishi, 2005 ). As individuals enter old age, although their physical functions gradually decline, they can reframe these external physical changes as resources for adapting to their environment. Reed (1991) suggested that self-transcendence is related to the psychological well-being of individuals in later life and that it becomes more prominent as individuals approach the end of life. Thus, self-transcendence involves perceiving oneself as part of the universe, transcending the limitations of the body and mind as well as those of time and space. Self-transcendence is thus a natural phenomenon in the aging process that leads individuals toward greater maturity and wisdom, ultimately enabling them to create meaning in life. By contrast, the disengagement theory posits that old age is a process of gradual withdrawal from existing social roles, in which older adults reduce their participation in social systems and their interactions with others. However, some individuals are unwilling to withdraw from their social roles due to aging. Instead, these individuals, often empowered by the freedom that comes with retirement and old age, are eager to engage in social activities to fulfill both personal and societal expectations.

Tornstam (1994) posited that aging represents the final stage of human development, a natural process that combines wisdom with greater maturity. Upchurch (1999) observed that as physical functions gradually decline, individuals mentally reframe these external physical changes as resources for adapting to their environment, integrating their life stages, reconstructing their sense of self-worth, and achieving life satisfaction. The driving force that facilitates this progression toward maturity is the capacity for self-transcendence. This theory aligns with the perspectives of Rogers (1970) and Reed (1983) . However, Tornstam (2003 , 2010) further refined the theory of gerotranscendence into three distinct dimensions: 1) Cosmic perspective: Older adults achieve self-transcendence by perceiving themselves as part of the universe, transcending the limitations of the body and mind as well as those of time and space. This natural phenomenon in the aging process leads individuals toward greater maturity and wisdom, enabling them to create meaning in life. This dimension is consistent with Reed’s theory of self-transcendence. 2) The self: This dimension involves the holistic growth of older adults, marked by a shift from self-centeredness to altruism. Older adults transcend physical development, learning to care for their bodies without being overly concerned with changes in appearance or function. Instead, they focus on spiritual and existential needs, reconstructing their sense of self-worth. 3) Social and personal relationships: In this dimension, older adults tend to reduce general social activities and increase time spent in solitude. They become less concerned with others’ opinions, reduce their desires for material possessions, and concentrate on their spiritual life. This shift results in a broader perspective and greater tolerance, leading to increased maturity and wisdom. Aging is a natural process, and when older adults transcend their past and re-engage with all aspects of life from a broader perspective, they enter the stage of gerotranscendence. At this stage, they become more mature and filled with wisdom ( Tornstam, 1994 ).

Since Guilford introduced the concept and significance of creativity at the 1959 Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, research on creativity has flourished ( Amabile, 1996 ). The term “creativity” can be traced back to the Latin word creare and the Greek word krainein, which respectively mean “to create” and “to fulfill.” Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary defines creativity as “the ability to produce original ideas” and “bringing something new into existence.” However, the definitions of creativity are diverse and broad, with numerous schools of thought offering various interpretations of its meaning. For example, Simonton (1988) proposed that creativity could be divided into three variables: knowledge and skills, effort, and the resulting product. Zhou and George (2001) described creativity as the generation of new and useful ideas by employees, which are expressed through the sharing of opinions. Sternberg (2003) summarized creativity as encompassing abilities such as exploration, imagination, hypothesis generation, synthesis, and invention. Research on the concept and definition of creativity has evolved from early unidimensional studies to more multidimensional approaches that consider both individual and sociocultural factors and cognitive and affective components. In recent years, the multiple definitions of creativity have shifted toward a confluence approach. Therefore, this study defined the expression of creativity among retirees as the ability to generate innovative concepts and ideas through the interaction between cognitive processes and the external environment, producing outcomes that are both original and useful.

An extensive body of theories and research related to creativity has been developed. From the viewpoint of psychoanalytic theory, creativity emphasizes the unconscious and the superego. By contrast, behavioral theory posits that all complex behaviors are learned, highlighting the role of environmental stimuli in triggering creativity. The humanistic theory focuses on self-actualization, whereas the historiometric approach studies creativity and the lives of historical figures renowned for their inventiveness, seeking to identify common factors among them. On the basis of the aforementioned confluence approach, the present study explored creativity through multiple integrated dimensions, including the componential model of creativity, the triarchic theory of creativity, the interactionist model of creativity, and the systems theory of creativity. Each of these theories will be examined in detail to identify and construct the theoretical foundation for this study, as outlined in the following sections.

1) Amabile’s Componential Model of Creativity

Amabile (1983) was the first scholar to construct a comprehensive framework for creativity, incorporating cognitive, personality, motivational, and social factors that influence the creative process, positing that creativity results from the interaction between individual characteristics, cognitive abilities, and the social environment. Her work examined both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, environmental factors, and their association with creative output, laying the groundwork for the social psychology of creativity. Amabile suggested that creativity is composed of domain-relevant skills, creativity-relevant skills, and task motivation. The more these three components interact and overlap, the higher an individual’s creativity. Her most critical contribution was recognizing the role of motivation in the creative process and the influence of the social environment on creativity—areas that had been largely overlooked by previous researchers. This perspective highlights that, in addition to the individual’s internal creative processes, external motivation plays a crucial role in influencing creativity.

2) Triarchic Theory of Creativity

Sternberg (2003) proposed the triarchic theory of creativity, suggesting that creativity emerges from the interaction of three key elements: intelligence, personality and motivation, and cognitive thinking styles. This theory is conceptually similar to Amabile’s (1983) componential model of creativity because both approaches emphasize the roles of motivation and cognitive styles in fostering creativity. However, the primary difference between these theories lies in the factors they prioritize: Sternberg positions intelligence as a critical factor influencing creativity, whereas Amabile focuses on domain-relevant skills as a determinant of creative potential.

3) Gardner’s Interactionist Model of Creativity

Gardner (1993) proposed the interactionist model of creativity, which emphasizes the role of interaction in the creative process. According to this model, creativity is influenced by an individual’s personal traits, intelligence, social support, and opportunities within their field. Gardner’s model underscores the importance of the interaction between the individual, others, and the work environment, suggesting that creativity emerges from the dynamic interplay of these factors.

4) Csikszentmihalyi’s Systems Theory of Creativity

Csikszentmihalyi (1996) argued that creativity is a system wherein selection and variation are the primary mechanisms of evolution. Creativity is not composed solely of individual factors; rather, it results from the interaction among three key elements: the individual, the domain, and the field. Without the support of the domain and the field, an individual can hardly display creativity. The domain is a symbolic system of cultural knowledge, the function of which is to preserve and transmit creative products to future generations. Whether a creative product has lasting value depends on the field, which functions as a gatekeeper, controlling and selecting which innovations are recognized and preserved. When an individual’s creative ideas or products are developed, they must undergo evaluation and approval by the gatekeepers in the field for the creativity to be supported and further developed. This process is cyclical: The domain communicates to the individual, who identifies innovative possibilities within the domain’s transmitted knowledge, generating creative variations. These variations are subsequently evaluated by the field to determine whether they should be retained within the domain.

In summary, creativity theories have increasingly adopted a multidimensional confluence approach. This study applied Csikszentmihalyi’s (1996) systems theory of creativity as the primary theoretical foundation to explore the current state of creativity performance among retirees.

Gerotranscendence involves a shift in older adults’ perspective on events, the acceptance of changes in their body and appearance, the rediscovery of self-worth, and an accompanying increase in life satisfaction. Tornstam (1994) pioneered the theory of gerotranscendence, applying it to studies of the aging process in which older adults face various physical, psychological, and social changes. Tornstam’s studies (1994 , 1997 ) suggested that the theory of gerotranscendence challenges the conventional negative perceptions of aging by viewing the aging process from a positive and expansive perspective. This new understanding encompasses time, space, the universe, life, and death, emphasizing that as older adults enter the stage of gerotranscendence, they experience development and change, which lead to increased life satisfaction. Tornstam (2003) later noted that greater gerotranscendence was associated with greater life satisfaction. Wadensten (2007) and Wang (2011) observed that gerotranscendence enables older adults to positively and actively adapt to changes in an aging society, to acknowledge and accept transformations and experiences, and to navigate old age successfully. This process helps them discover meaning in life and self-worth, enhancing their quality of life, reducing the burden on younger generations, and contributing to stable social development ( Chen et al., 2019 ). Wang (2011) argued that gerotranscendence enables older adults to understand that aging is the final stage of natural development, a process in which humans achieve maturity and wisdom, leading to a sense of satisfaction with life. Finally, gerotranscendence refers to the change in the elderly’s perspective on events, acceptance of changes in body and appearance, calm treatment of death, rediscovery of self-worth, and the consequent increase in life satisfaction.

Although studies have acknowledged that creativity can slow the aging process, the present study focused on whether creativity can assist older adults in achieving and benefiting from gerotranscendence. Physiological states deteriorate over time as organs weaken and age, but creativity does not. If older adults continue to learn and consistently apply creativity, this creativity can not only stimulate vibrant energy in later years but also merge with the experiences of their youth to produce a more mature wisdom. Cohen (2006) clarified that creativity is not limited by age; the aging process does not inherently diminish creativity; the experiences and wisdom gained over the years can lead to even richer creativity. Nuland (2007) reached similar conclusions, suggesting that older adults should continue learning, pursue wisdom, engage in social activities, and express and practice their creativity to achieve a state that transcends their chronological age. Herman (2011) also observed a correlation between aging and creativity, suggesting that creativity can alter an individual’s perceptions and experience of successful aging. Creativity may encourage the development of healthy aging, active aging, creative aging, and even gerotranscendence. Creativity is present throughout the life course of older adults and profoundly affects their physical, mental, and spiritual well-being when they express creative outcomes. When older adults use creativity related to aesthetic experiences, they can continually accumulate small peak experiences that nourish and enhance their spirituality. As soon as these small peak experiences and spiritual growth reach a threshold, the capacity for self-transcendence may emerge and gerotranscendence is likely to occur.

Older adults who exhibit higher levels of creativity, experience fewer negative emotions, and possess greater self-control are more likely to deepen their spirituality. This deepened spirituality can help them achieve experiences of gerotranscendence and enhance their satisfaction with their quality of life. Similarly, Herman (2011) observed that engaging in creative activities can enrich the physical, mental, and spiritual well-being of older adults, increasing their life satisfaction. Therefore, a positive association exists between creativity and life satisfaction, although further empirical research is required to obtain a clear understanding of this connection.