Visual aesthetics play an integral part in the urban landscape, adding to the charm of a cityscape while managing and enhancing the health and happiness of its residents. Lynch (1960) pointed out the significance of aesthetics in visual decisions about the shape and appearance of an urban landscape and their consequences for well-being and satisfaction among residents. According to Lynch, the visual characteristics of a city have a considerable impact on residents’ mental maps of their surroundings. Similarly, Jacobs (1961) highlights the significance of visually appealing streets in promoting community and social engagement. Both Lynch and Jacobs contend that visual aesthetics involves more than just surface appeal; it is inextricably linked to the utility and livability of urban environments. Aesthetically attractive settings play an important influence on stress reduction and cognitive function, ( Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989 ), implying that exposure to visually appealing places has a good impact on people’s mental states, which contributes to overall well-being. In metropolitan environments, where the visual environment is an ever-present backdrop to daily life, the necessity for a visually appealing streetscape is even stronger.

Well-designed urban environments have the potential to have a beneficial psychological influence on citizens, resulting in a healthier and stronger community, UN-Habitat’s Global Report on Human Settlements ( UN-Habitat, 2022 ). The paper underscores the close relationship between urban aesthetics and mental health. By emphasizing aesthetically pleasant design concepts, urban planners can build surroundings that not only serve functional functions but also improve residents’ overall quality of life. Green areas, well-designed landscapes, and aesthetically beautiful architecture all play important roles in maintaining a city’s environmental balance, UN-Habitat’s Global Report on Human Settlements ( UN-Habitat, 2022 ). Integrating visual aesthetics with sustainable practices, as indicated in UN-Habitat studies, is an important method for developing urban places that are both visually appealing and environmentally responsible. Integrating visual aesthetics and sustainable practices is a key strategy for creating more livable, resilient, and ecologically friendly cities. This integration is viewed as a holistic strategy that goes beyond aesthetic considerations, recognizing the interconnection of urban places’ visual attractiveness and their impact on the larger ecological system.

A focus on visual aesthetics in urban areas is inextricably linked to the concepts of inclusive and accessible design, which are consistent with modern ideas of promoting diverse and egalitarian communities ( Brady, 2019 ). This focus goes beyond aesthetic considerations, demonstrating a deep commitment to making the built environment welcoming to people from all walks of life. UN-Habitat’s Global Report on Human Settlements ( UN-Habitat, 2022 ), highlights the link between visual aesthetics and inclusion by emphasizing how inclusive design techniques, when combined with visual aesthetics, generate urban environments that meet the requirements of all residents, regardless of age, ability, or cultural background. According to the report, developing a visually beautiful and inclusive urban space goes hand in hand with providing social and cultural opportunities for everybody. The visual quality of streets and public areas influences corporate placement decisions.

Perceptual and evaluative features of urban streets illuminate the complex relationship between physical design and user happiness ( Nasar, 1998b ). His research emphasizes the importance of visual features, with cleanliness and order as key predictors of users’ preferences for a certain street environment. The concept of visual coherence is emphasized as a key component determining how people perceive and evaluate the overall aesthetics of urban streets. Nasar (2017) , highlights how the physical arrangement of features, such as buildings, facades, and streetscapes, greatly influences the sensory experience of urban settings. The perceptual and evaluative characteristics of urban streets include a variety of quantitative elements that influence people’s perceptions and urban environmental evaluations.

Coherence, is determinant for the aesthetic value of urban sceneries, as it influences the overall harmony and uniformity of a building’s visual arrangement, including its facades and streetscape ( Strano et al., 2013 ). According to Nasar (2017) , it is the degree of order, harmony, and unity in a building’s composition, structure, and style. It refers to refers to the entire harmony and uniformity of a building’s visual arrangement, including its facades and streetscape. According to Nasar (1998a) , visual coherence is a quantitative feature of street aesthetics, and its importance stems from its influence on user preferences and contentment with the surrounding street environment. He emphasizes the significance of visual coherence as a quantitative aspect of street aesthetics that determines user preferences and satisfaction with the street environment. This factor can be assessed objectively by examining the level of visual harmony and uniformity in the design and layout of urban streetscapes.

The second dimension, cleanliness, is an observable factor that influences people’s impressions of city streets. Nasar (1998a) underscores the importance of cleanliness as a perceptual factor influencing overall likability and contentment with urban streets. Clean environments visually appeal to street users and attract more traffic. Cleanliness can be measured through observational surveys or evaluations that look for litter, debris, or other evidence of cleanliness in the street ( Goswami & Divi, 2019 ). A clean and well-maintained setting is frequently connected with desirable aesthetic qualities.

Scale, refers to how the physical proportions of a street environment relate to the human body. It considers the proportions, dimensions, and spatial characteristics that make roadways more comfortable and welcoming to people ( Ye et al., 2019 ). Le Corbusier, a pioneer of modern architecture, emphasized the importance of human scale in urban street design. His approach was rooted in the belief that cities should be designed to accommodate the physical and social needs of their inhabitants. He saw buildings and cities as machines for living, where every part should serve a specific purpose efficiently. His architectural philosophy included pilotis (supporting columns), free façades, open floor plans, horizontal windows, and roof gardens, all aimed at creating functional, spacious, and well-lit urban environments. In his vision for the Radiant City, he proposed a city with large open spaces, green areas, and high-density living, all organized in a geometrically precise manner. He used the human body as a reference for proportions in design and aimed at creating spaces in harmony with the scale and needs of human beings. Gehl (2016) emphasizes that design should be at a human scale in generating dynamic and usable streets. Human scale can be measured by examining sidewalk width, building height, and the existence of factors that foster intimacy and connection with pedestrians.

Order, is significant in shaping the visual appeal of urban streetscapes since it influences people’s views of the overall aesthetics of the built environment. Nasar (1998b) emphasizes the importance of order as a significant visual feature that influences people’s perceptions of street aesthetics. Examining urban streets reveals that order is a multifaceted concept that encompasses a variety of aspects that work together to improve the streetscape’s aesthetic attractiveness. Objective measurements of order include the arrangement and organization of objects along the roadway, the absence of visual clutter, and the provision of clear signage and wayfinding systems, all of which contribute to a sense of order and coherence in the street environment ( Boeing, 2019 ). Lynch (1960) underscores the necessity of readability in urban settings. A well-organized streetscape with clear signage promotes ease of mobility and improves the overall user experience. The confluence of visual order with functional efficiency emphasizes order’s overall impact on the urban environment. When pieces are arranged along an urban street in an orderly manner, they not only contribute to visual appeal but also influence the space’s utility and navigability.

Legibility, explains the degree of clarity, distinctiveness, and recognizability in a building’s identity, function, and location. Lynch (1960) emphasizes the importance of readability in urban architecture because it enhances people’s sense of orientation and wayfinding. Legibility can be assessed using criteria such as signpost clarity, the presence of landmarks, and the overall comprehensibility of the street layout. Visual street aesthetics are important in urban contexts as they shape residents’ perceptions and mental maps, which in turn influence their well-being and satisfaction. Aesthetic components such as coherence, cleanliness, human scale, order, and legibility play a vital role in influencing user preferences and their overall satisfaction with street environments ( Nasar, 1998a ; Strano et al., 2013 ).

The study employed one key data collection method: an interview schedule (focusing on residents/business owners of Hospital Road and Street Users/visitors).

A researcher-administered interview schedule was employed to collect data on participants’ views and preferences for the aesthetics of Kisii Town’s Hospital Road as zoned out in Figure 1 . The schedule had a series of statements rated on a seven-point Likert scale, with responses ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree, and was divided into two sections: demographic information and scaled questions ( Bryman, 2016 ). Conducting the interviews personally ensured consistency and accuracy in data collection. The collected data was processed and analyzed using the Confirmatory Factor Analysis technique in SPSS.

The study adopted purposive sampling for the interview schedule, which targeted general road users and business owners to ensure participation from various groups. This approach ensured that Hospital Road’s aesthetics and functionality were taken into account from a range of perspectives. According to Zeisel (1995) , purposive sampling helps in the collection of in-depth, contextually relevant information. The approach helped improve the research findings’ validity and generalizability and support well-informed urban planning and design decision-making.

This study categorized the statements into seven broad themes: coherence, order, cleanliness, legibility, verdancy, enclosure, and scale. Cronbach’s Alpha was used to determine the survey instrument’s reliability, which was determined to be 0.932, indicating excellent internal consistency and reliability of the 53 items used in the survey. Table 1 shows the result of this reliability test. The appropriateness of the data for factor analysis was confirmed through the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Measure of Sampling Adequacy and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity. For this study, the KMO value was 0.870, considered “meritorious,” suggesting that the sample size was adequate. Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was significant, p < 0.001, thus supporting sufficient correlation between variables to conduct a factor analysis. These are presented in Table 2 and show that data are adequate for factor analysis.

The Anti-image Correlation Matrix was adopted to assess the variables’ suitability for factor analysis. The matrix is made up of two parts: the anti-image covariance matrix and the anti-image correlation matrix. The Anti-image Covariance Matrix generated partial covariances of variables after accounting for the linear effects of other variables. In this case, diagonal elements like Coherence (0.324), Order (0.336), and Cleanliness (0.439) represent the anti-images’ variances, and off-diagonal elements like as Coherence and Order (−0.167) demonstrate their partial covariances. The Anti-image Correlation Matrix depicted partial correlations across variables, with diagonal elements indicating Measures of Sampling Adequacy (MSA). High MSA values, such as Scale (0.879) and Cleanliness (0.843), suggesting that these variables were suitable for factor analysis. Overall, the study revealed that most variables had acceptable MSA values, thus confirmed their suitability for further factor analysis. As indicated by Table 3 , most variables have acceptable MSA values, and thus they are suitable to continue the factor analysis.

a. Measures of Sampling Adequacy (MSA).

Relative Importance

The study applied the Relative Importance Index (RII) to find out what factors residents and users of Hospital Road perceived were most important for street attractiveness and functionality. The RII was determined using the formula:

$RII={\displaystyle \sum Wni}/A\times N$

where W is the weight assigned to each response, ni is the frequency number of responses at each weight, A is the maximum weight in survey which in this case is 7 and N is the total number of respondents. This index was designed to rank the importance of various street characteristics according to participant perceptions. The study grouped the statements into seven key themes: coherence, order, cleanliness, legibility, verdancy, enclosure, and scale, and then ranked the statements that were considered important within each category. Table 4 shows the results of the Relative Importance Index identifying the factors valued most by the respondents for attractiveness and functionality of the streets.

The analysis of Hospital Road in Kisii Town identified numerous important themes that influence street attractiveness and usability, with the Relative Importance Index (RII) serving as a basis for rating these factors. Under the theme of Coherence, the highest-ranked element was street lighting arrangement (RII = 0.737597), implying its importance in improving visual harmony and attractiveness. This was followed by building shape and height (RII = 0.714881), building decorations (RII = 0.70108), and building canopy size (RII = 0.7). These features are critical for creating a cohesive visual experience that is both aesthetically pleasant and practical. In terms of Order, the welcoming quality of building fronts (RII = 0.708283) and building decoration (RII = 0.707683) were scored highly, showing the importance of demonstrating the significance of orderly and appealing street features in developing a structured cityscape.

The theme of cleanliness was also cited as being critical to the street’s attractiveness, with important factors including the lack of overgrown greenery and weeds (RII = 0.677381) and vandalism-free building walls (RII = 0.645238). Other important factors included the absence of stains and spills (RII = 0.628811) and visually appealing pavements (RII = 0.608488). Effective Stormwater disposal (RII = 0.56131) and the positioning of trash cans (RII = 0.495833) were also observed, emphasizing the importance of regular maintenance to ensure a clean street environment. In the Legibility category, the placement of street lights (RII = 0.760311) emerged as the most significant factor in enhancing navigability, then the presence of landmarks (RII = 0.651861) and uniform street conditions (RII = 0.61566). These findings highlight the necessity of visible street markings and safe walking conditions in supporting pedestrian street usability.

The study further explored the significance of Verdancy, focusing on the presence and maintenance of greenery, which is vital to the street’s visual appeal. Well-maintained green areas (RII = 0.679617), distinctive tree shapes (RII = 0.661242), and shade-giving tree canopies (RII = 0.612672) were identified as important contributions to a pleasant street environment. However, it was observed that overgrown vegetation could diminish the street’s attractiveness (RII = 0.648214). The theme of Enclosure focused on the sense of security and spatial boundaries offered by street components, with building walls and fences (RII = 0.68679) and perceived vulnerability (RII = 0.653661) playing major roles. Open or undeveloped spaces were considered as potentially increasing insecurity (RII = 0.708333), though building organization (RII = 0.754762) and wide streets that enhance air circulation (RII = 0.705357) contributed positively to the street’s ambience.

Addressing these issues through careful urban planning could enhance the street environment’s coherence, cleanliness, legibility, verdancy, and enclosure, resulting in a more appealing, safe, and valuable public place. These findings provide important recommendations to enhance the overall user experience and satisfaction with Hospital Road in Kisii Town.

The study conducted a Confirmatory Factor Analysis to assess street characteristics that Hospital Road users in Kisii Town consider important. It analyzed and grouped these characteristics into components that represent residents’ perceptions of their surroundings. The findings provide a comprehensive understanding of how numerous visual elements influence public views and significant suggestions for future urban design improvements in the area. Tables 5-11 below illustrate the factor loadings for the Coherence, Order, Cleanliness, Legibility, Verdancy, Enclosure and Scale themes, respectively, highlighting which specific elements contribute to each component.

Results from the CFA, gave a number of elements that best explain the variation in user attitudes towards Hospital Road in Kisii town, mediated mainly through elements of coherence, order, cleanliness, legibility, verdancy, enclosure, and scale. The highest loading for street furniture 0.703 shows that coherence is more influenced by the presence and quality of elements such as seats, barriers, and waste bins. Other aspects comprised included, the placement of street lighting, 0.455, and clarity of signage, 0.367, albeit to a lesser extent. Orderliness is highly informed by organization in street infrastructure where loadings were relatively high for sidewalks 0.610, street furniture 0.592, and facade decorations 0.678. These combined demonstrates order and organization in street environment. Cleanliness, which is determined by the state of furniture (0.578), building walls (0.657), and effective waste bins management (0.517); these factors point out that systematic maintenance is crucial in creating the perception of a clean city.

Legibility formed another important factor with high loadings: clarity of street markings 0.681, effectiveness of street signs 0.591, and visibility of street names 0.597, helping in finding one’s way around with ease and safety. Whereas, the characteristics that determine enclosure included features of walking safety 0.632, visual distance 0.619, and building openings 0.567; thus, the important to have well-organized building layout and visibility in views for creating place safety and spatial quality. Verdancy, mainly characterized by greenery 0.741, vegetation diversity 0.706, and shading 0.693, adding not only aesthetic values but also environmental quality to the street. It has a low loading for green lawns, 0.103, which would suggest that, compared with other green elements, its overall impact is less.

Consequently, the size of buildings, 0.821, which indicated spatial proportionality and quality of the pedestrian experience, and the dimensions of buildings in relation to the street were of great importance. This is significantly enhanced by the interaction of sunlight paths with being overshadowed, adding to this perception with a load of 0.523 and 0.501, respectively, indicating how aspects affect the visual and spatial experiences along Hospital Road. These results put together various insights for urban planners and policymakers on where to intervene in order to enhance the general outlook of the urban environment in Kisii Town to be more appealing, well-organized, and functional to its users.

Table 12 , presents the Pearson correlation matrix based on observations made for building designs, street furniture, landscaping, lighting design, and public art, signage, pavement materials, using 240 observations. This suggests that the building designs are highly associated with street furniture, whereas for other elements such as lighting design and signage, the association is less, with a correlation coefficient of 0.212 at p < 0.01 and −0.042 at p > 0.05, respectively. Stronger positive correlations with Landscaping are: Street furniture: r = 0.591, p < 0.01, and Lighting design: r = 0.276, p < 0.01. However, in negative correlation, street furniture is with signage: r = −0.140, p < 0.05. The landscaping is highly positively related to the lighting design both at r = 0.564, p < 0.01, and public art with r = 0.258, p < 0.01, but weakly negatively related to pavement material at r = −0.137 and p < 0.05. The lightning design technique finds a high positive correlation with public art, r = 0.629, p < 0.01, and is moderately positively related to signage, r = 0.204, p < 0.01. Public Art has only a significant positive relationship with signage at r = 0.349 (p < 0.01), but weaker for other components. On the other hand, signage has a positive and strong relation to pavement materials (r = 0.333, p < 0.01), and for the latter, the relationships with other components are weaker or negative.

^**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed); ^*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

By adopting the factor analysis method, the study was able to identify seven important elements that define street attractiveness and usability: coherence, order, cleanliness, legibility, verdancy, enclosure, and scale. These elements are supported by a balanced development of integrated urban planning principles that balance aesthetic appeal with functional practicality. The participants maintained that streets should be visually harmonious, functionally efficient, and contextually appropriate to challenges brought about by limited urban space and constricted budgets. Effective street planning and design needs to balance aesthetic principles with practical needs and provide green infrastructure to help ensure efficient flow and safety. Based on these findings, recommendations for improving street functionality by integrating sustainable practice and aesthetic enhancement through community engagement have been made. These insights shall be useful in enriching the lives of urban settings, thus making Kisii Town more attractive and livable.

From the study, several recommendations can be made to enhance the urban street environment and improve user satisfaction: