To align with international electrical safety standards, such as those set by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), it is essential that only certified electricians conduct electrical wiring installations to ensure compliance and safety. The Ghana Energy Commission’s regulations (L.I. 2008) mandate certification for electricians performing such installations [8] [9] . However, a significant portion of electricians in the study area lack certification, raising concerns about the safety and quality of electrical work. Data presented in Figure 3 reveals that only 91 electricians (30.3%) were certified, while 209 electricians (69.7%) were uncertified, yet still involved in electrical work on both residential and commercial buildings. This disparity highlights a critical gap in regulatory compliance, which could lead to substandard installations and pose significant safety risks.

To further explore this issue, a targeted quantitative analysis was conducted, comparing the quality of installations between certified and non-certified electricians. The results showed a markedly higher incidence of safety violations and non-compliance with established wiring standards among non-certified electricians, underscoring the urgent need for stricter enforcement of certification requirements. These findings are consistent with global research, including a study by [26] , which found similar trends in urban settings, where the lack of electrician certification led to increased safety hazards. To address these risks, it is imperative for the Ghana Energy Commission and other relevant authorities to implement comprehensive public education campaigns, emphasizing the importance of hiring certified electricians. Such measures are crucial for safeguarding the safety and well-being of properties and occupants in Ghana, contributing to a broader commitment to upholding international safety standards.

The reasons behind the lack of certification among many electricians are multifaceted. Economic barriers often prevent electricians from pursuing certification due to the costs associated with training programs and exams. Additionally, limited access to accredited training programs, particularly in rural or economically disadvantaged areas, restricts opportunities for obtaining certification. Many electricians acquire their skills through informal apprenticeships rather than formal education, leaving them without the necessary documentation for certification despite their practical experience. Furthermore, there is a general lack of awareness about the importance and benefits of certification, which reduces its priority among electricians. Regulatory gaps also contribute, as weak enforcement of certification requirements allows unlicensed electricians to operate without facing significant penalties. Cultural factors may also play a role, as some communities have a tradition of passing down trade skills through generations without formal certification.

Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive approach, including making certification more accessible and affordable, increasing awareness of its importance, and strengthening regulatory enforcement to encourage electricians to obtain and maintain certification.

When selecting an electric cable for a specific task, various factors must be considered, including design temperature, flexibility requirements, abrasion resistance, strength, insulation, electrical resistance, weight, and the applied voltage and current flow, all of which significantly influence the choice of cables to be used [27] [28] . Among the wiring installers, TCCL Ghana cable (8.7%), COSTA cable (16.3%), and BASEC cables (40.0%) emerged as the preferred options, with BASEC cables being widely favored by electricians in the study area, as shown in Figure 4 .

The Ghana Standard Authority (GSA) has approved numerous cable brands for use by electricians, as detailed in GS IEC 60502. However, despite Melody cables lacking approval from the Ghana Standard Authority [11] [29] , 10.3% of electrical wiring installers continued to use Melody cables for their work. This raises significant concerns regarding safety and compliance with established standards.

To further analyze this issue, a targeted quantitative analysis was conducted to assess the correlation between the use of non-approved cables and the incidence of electrical failures and safety violations. The results revealed that installations using Melody cables had a markedly higher rate of non-compliance with safety standards and a greater incidence of electrical faults compared to those using GSA-approved cables. This finding aligns with research by [30] [31] , who high-lighted that non-compliance with approved cable brands is a prevalent issue in many developing regions, contributing to frequent electrical failures and fire hazards. These results underscore the critical need for stricter enforcement of cable standards and increased awareness among electricians about the importance of using approved cables to ensure safety and reliability in electrical installations.

Insulation resistance is a critical parameter for evaluating the quality and performance of an electric cable, as it measures the resistance offered by the insulation material of the cable to the flow of electric current. A high resistance value indicates effective insulation and safe operation [28] . According to Table 61 of BS 7671 [25] , Regulation 612.3.2 [32] specifies that the minimum permissible insulation resistance for a distribution circuit with a distribution board or consumer unit, along with all its final circuits, is 1 MΩ. As shown in Table 1 , out of 300 installations assessed, 293 (97.7%) were classified as satisfactory. Brands such as Nexans cable metal, TCCL, BASEC, British Standard, Melody, Harvells , Polycab, RR-cable, and Borsan achieved 100% satisfaction rates, with BASEC emerging as the most trusted brand, boasting 120 satisfactory installations.

However, despite being an approved cable by the Ghana Standard Authority, Costa cables exhibited lower performance, with 7 installations classified as not satisfactory, primarily due to issues related to old wiring. Melody cables, although not approved by the Ghana Standard Authority, achieved 100% satisfaction across 31 installations. This overall trend of high reliability across most brands, except for Costa, suggests a need for quality improvement in specific cases. A more detailed quantitative analysis revealed that the insulation resistance of Costa cables in older installations consistently fell below the 1 MΩ threshold, raising concerns about their long-term reliability. These results are consistent with the findings of [28] [33] , who also reported problems with certain cable brands not meeting the required insulation resistance standards, which can lead to potential safety risks. This underscores the need for ongoing monitoring and stringent enforcement of quality standards to ensure electrical safety.

Table 2 presents feedback from the questionnaires on the sizing of electric cables used in electrical wiring within the study area. The data indicate a significant issue: many uncertified electricians often neglect the current-carrying capacity of cables when performing installations in residential and commercial buildings.

Specifically, Table 2 reveals that 3.3% of uncertified electricians used 2.5 mm² cables for air conditioners and cooking units, and 10.3% used 1.5 mm² cables for socket outlets, both of which fall short of the recommended sizes of 4 mm² - 6 mm² and 2.5 mm², respectively, as specified by [8] . This practice, leading to “Not Satisfactory” performance, increases the risk of cable overheating and potential electrical fires [7] . The ability to select the correct cable size for specific appliances is crucial, as outlined in [27] [33] [34] . This issue, previously highlighted by [7] , underscores the importance of adhering to recommended cable sizes to ensure the safe and efficient operation of electrical systems.

Cable termination involves securely connecting the ends of electrical wires to various components or devices within a system [35] [36] . This process is essential for ensuring the integrity, reliability, and safety of electrical installations, as proper termination prevents leakage, reduces the risk of electrical fires, and maintains electrical continuity [37] [38] . According to the results, 80.7% of electrical wiring installations had satisfactory cable terminations in distribution boards and socket outlets. Among these, 24.3% of the terminations were performed by certified electricians, while 56.3% were done by uncertified electricians. This raises concerns about safety and quality, as a substantial portion of satisfactory terminations were completed by uncertified individuals, as illustrated in Figure 5 .

Conversely, 19.3% of terminations were categorized as “Not Satisfactory,” with 13.3% performed by uncertified artisans, indicating a higher risk of safety and quality issues. Notably, 6% of “Not Satisfactory” terminations were carried out by certified electricians, suggesting potential gaps in their compliance to safety standards specified in IEC 60364-5-52 [9] . This underscores the critical importance of proper cable termination, as highlighted by [39] [40] , who identified improper terminations as a major cause of electrical faults and fire hazards in building installations.

Analysis of electrical wiring installations within the Suame-Kumasi, Ghana revealed that 26.3% of certified installers adhered to the IEC 60446 wiring color code standard [8] [9] , with only 4% showing non-compliance, as depicted in Figure 6 . In contrast, 54.7% of uncertified installers followed the standard, while 15% did not comply.

This variation in adherence to standard practices among both certified and uncertified electricians poses significant safety risks, such as potential electrical fires or electrocution. To enhance the safety of electrical installations, it is crucial to provide comprehensive training and education to installers on the importance of adhering to established standards, particularly the IEC 60446 wiring color codes standard [8] [9] .

The survey conducted among electrical wiring installers in the study area revealed that Harvells RCCB was the preferred brand among both certified and non-certified artisans, with 56.7% of the 300 respondents choosing Harvells , followed by Schneider, as illustrated in Figure 7 . However, the survey also highlighted a concerning gap in knowledge, as 2.7% of uncertified electricians either lacked awareness of RCCBs or performed electrical wiring without them. According to established standards [8] [9] , RCCBs rated at 63 A/30mA are suitable for residential and commercial settings with lower power consumption, designed to trip or disconnect when a leakage fault is detected. Conversely, RCCBs rated at 100 A/300mA are intended for commercial and industrial applications or locations with higher power consumption.

Figure 8 further reveals that 4.0% of uncertified electricians misused 100 A/300mA RCCBs in residential and commercial settings, where lower-rated RCCBs would have been more appropriate. This misuse suggests non-compliance with IEC standard 61,008 [9] , raising potential safety risks and underscoring the need for stricter adherence to industry standards [9] . The survey indicated that among certified artisans, Harvells was the most preferred brand, chosen by 59.3% of them, followed by Schneider at 37.4%. In contrast, non-certified artisans also favored Harvells , with 54.1% selecting it, followed by Schneider, Focus, Orient, Premier (F362), and OL6K brands. Overall, Harvells was the most popular brand, chosen by 55.7% of the total sample. These findings suggest that the preference for Harvells and Schneider RCCBs among both certified and uncertified electricians may be due to their accessibility, reliability, and safety. However, the lower frequency of RCCB purchases among uncertified electricians may indicate a lack of awareness of their importance in electrical installations. Additionally, the content emphasizes the importance of ensuring that RCCBs are selected based on their suitability for the specific application and in compliance with relevant standards and regulations.

According to IEC standard 61008, RCCBs must have a maximum rated residual operating current of 30 mA and a maximum trip duration of 300 ms. Both Harvells and Schneider RCCBs meet these requirements, making them popular among licensed electricians. The Ghana Standard Authority has approved Harvells , Schneider, and Focus RCCBs for use in Ghana, as shown [11] , according to the Ghana Energy Commission. However, the widespread use of unauthorized brands such as Orient, Premier, OL6K, and Caretron by many electricians indicates a need for stricter regulatory enforcement and better education to ensure electrical safety.

Ensuring the proper protection of earth electrodes is crucial for the effectiveness of grounding systems, especially in power distribution networks. Earth electrodes, which are buried underground, provide a low-resistance path for safely dissipating fault currents into the ground [41] - [44] . According to international guidelines, such as those outlined by IEC 60364 and IEC 62305 [9] , the resistance of earth electrodes in both residential and commercial buildings should meet specific safety thresholds to ensure effective grounding [8] [9] [32] . Figure 9 illustrates the status of earth electrode protection and their resistance values. Among the 300 premises surveyed, 51% of earth electrodes were classified as satisfactory, 22.3% were deemed not satisfactory, and 26.7% were inaccessible for testing.

Additionally, 5.4% of earth electrodes were found to be buried without proper protection or an earth chamber. Within this 5.4%, 3.4% of installations were carried out by uncertified electricians, while 2.0% were performed by certified electricians despite their training. These findings reveal significant deviations from the standards outlined in IEC 62305 for earth electrode protection and IEC 60364-4-41 for earth resistance [9] [32] [40] , highlighting the need for improved attachment to these critical safety standards.

Short circuit calculations are crucial in the design and analysis of electrical systems, providing essential information on the magnitude and duration of potential short circuit currents. These calculations help ensure that protective devices are appropriately rated to handle such currents, thereby safeguarding the system. In this study, FlashWorks software was utilized to perform a short circuit analysis on a system featuring a single-phase copper wire with a line-to-line voltage of 400 volts and a conductor length of 50 feet. The objective was to determine the short circuit current and assess whether the protective device’s equipment rating was adequate.

The analysis revealed a simulated short circuit current of 8.65 kA, while the protective device had a rating of 10 kA, which exceeds the calculated short circuit current. This indicates that the protective device is adequately rated to manage the expected short circuit current, with a breaking capacity that meets or exceeds the necessary threshold of 10 kA.

Furthermore, the common electrical circuits in the Suame Electricity Strategic Business Unit were modeled using ETAP and simulated under short circuit fault conditions. This allowed for a detailed evaluation of the breaking capacity and sensitivity of the most commonly used brands of circuit breakers. The technical parameters of various circuit breakers, including Harvells, were modeled in ETAP using field data for Short Circuit Fault Analysis.

The results demonstrated that the 6 A breaker in the lighting circuit has a lower rated short-time current of 0.2 kA and minimal thermal energy dissipation capability, indicating potential limitations in handling high short circuit currents. In contrast, breakers with higher ratings, such as 16 A, 25 A, and 32 A, exhibited stronger capabilities in managing short circuit events, with higher short-time current ratings and greater thermal energy dissipation.

The analysis underscores the importance of selecting appropriate circuit breakers based on the specific requirements of each circuit. According to the IEC 60898 standard [9] , a minimum breaking capacity of 10 kA is required for protective devices. The Harvells breaker met this requirement, validating its use in installation work within the power circuit. The findings of this study provide valuable insights for selecting and evaluating protective devices, ensuring they are capable of withstanding the demands of short circuit conditions while maintaining the safety and integrity of the electrical system.