Political and economic capitals around the world, including those in Africa, tend to attract more people because in most instances they tend to have more infrastructures, amenities, electricity, running water, good roads, medical facilities, colleges and universities, and technology. Also, they are more advanced than other parts of a country, such as rural areas. Indeed, it is because of this attraction of massive numbers of people that causes some countries to move their capital cities/regions to new locations or build new ones altogether. Examining the urban planning of six capital cities in Africa and Asia, Abusaada and Elshater (2022) point out that: “In the third millennium, many embraced the concept of creating new cities and capital cities to resolve the problems in existing capitals. This required development-free solutions, mainly because the old capitals were unable to support an increase in population due to the absence of recreational amenities” (p. 7). In an article discussing the building of new capital cities in Africa, Abubakar and Doan (2017) point out that: “The promoters of these projects promise some ‘impressive amenities and functioning systems that will enable the urban lifestyle most Western cities provide’” (p. 547). Appiah (2023, November 6) points out that: “Along with the growth in the general population, the African middle class is also set to expand, bringing with it increased demand for social and cultural amenities including recreational spaces, educational institutions, healthcare facilities and cultural centres that will now be within the reach of a greater number of people” (p. 1).

An important factor that maybe influencing Black people to migrate to political and economic capitals across Africa is temperate climates. In an article entitled: “The Prevalence of Temperate Climates in Capital Cities across Africa: The African Union, the African Diaspora, and Africa’s Development,” Kaba (2024c) presents data illustrating that political and economic capitals in Africa have the characteristics of temperate climates. Three major examples presented are as follows: altitude, average annual maximum and minimum temperatures, and rainfall.

According to Table 1 , of the 58 capital cities/regions in Africa, 16 (27.6%) have elevation levels of 1000 meters or higher, ranging from 1011 meters to 2405 meters: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2405 meters, Asmara, Eritrea, 2334 meters, Gitega, Burundi, 1712 meters (Bujumbura, 805 meters), Nairobi, Kenya, 1684 meters, Windhoek, Namibia, 1656 meters, Maseru, Lesotho, 1552 meters, Kigali, Rwanda, 1542 meters, Harare, Zimbabwe, 1494 meters, Antananarivo, Madagascar, 1274 meters, Pretoria, South Africa, 1332 meters (Johannesburg, 1767 meters), Lusaka, Zambia, 1277 meters, Kampala, Uganda, 1223 meters, Mbabane, Eswatini, 1209 meters, Dodoma, Tanzania, 1125 meters (Dares Salaam, 24.1 meters), Lilongwe, Malawi, 1056 meters, and Gaborone, Botswana, 1011 meters. An additional 14 (24.1%) capital cities/regions have an elevation level of 100 meters to less than 800 meters: Yaoundé, Cameroon, 726 meters, Juba, South Sudan, 517.9 meters, Abuja, Nigeria, 476.1 meters (Lagos, 11 meters), Jamestown, Saint Helena, 426 meters, Khartoum, Sudan, 381 meters, Bangui, Central African Republic, 351.13 meters, Bamako, Mali, 338 meters, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 299 meters, N’Djamena, Chad, 299 meters, Brazzaville, Republic of Congo, 284.1 meters, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo, 281 meters, Yamoussoukro, Cote d’Ivoire, 214 meters (Abidjan, 10.1 meters), Niamey, Niger, 206 meters, and Algiers, Algeria, 186 meters (also see Kaba, 2024c: p. 221 ).

High altitude regions tend to have pleasant weather or climates. Black people migrating to political and economic capitals from the United States benefit from their relatively high altitudes because a substantial proportion of people in the United States tend to be overweight or obese, with adult obesity rate at 36.2% in 2016 ( Kaba & Kaba, 2020: p. 135 ). This means that residing in higher elevation regions in Africa helps in reducing the number of days in the year with very hot temperatures all day long. Also, residing in higher elevation regions helps with physical exercise, such as walking, running, gardening, or farming.

Another example presented is the number of days of rainfall during the year. According to Table 1 , of 39 capital cities/regions in Africa with available annual rainfall data, 8 (20.5%) have 100 days or more of rainfall, ranging from 114 days in Kigali, Rwanda, to 162 days in Conakry, Guinea (the highest on the mainland of Africa), and 178 days in Port Louis, Mauritius (an island nation); and 27 (69.2%) have 50 days or more of rainfall: Port Louis, Mauritius, 178 days, Conakry, Guinea, 162 days, Libreville, Gabon, 146 days, Addis, Ababa, Ethiopia, 142 days, Yaoundé, Cameroon, 133 days, Malabo, Equatorial Guinea, 126 degrees, Bangui, Central African Republic, 116 days, Kigali, Rwanda, 114 days, Juba, South Sudan, 96 days, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo, 94 days, Brazzaville, Republic of Congo, 90 days, Yamoussoukro, Cote d’Ivoire, 89 days (Abidjan 98 days). Abuja, Nigeria, 80 days (Lagos, 122 days), Nairobi, Kenya, 80 days, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau, 79 days, Antananarivo, Madagascar, 73 days, Lomé, Togo, 71 days, Bamako, Mali, 70 days, Banjul, Gambia, 64 days, Tunis, Tunisia, 64 days, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 62 days, Algiers, Algeria, 62 days, Harare, Zimbabwe, 62 days, Maputo, Mozambique, 60 days, Rabat, Morocco, 54 days (Casablanca, 46 days), Accra, Ghana, 55 days, and Pretoria, South Africa, 55 days (also see Kaba, 2024c: p. 227) .

According to Table 1 , of 40 capital cities/regions, 17 (42.5%) have very pleasant average annual maximum daytime temperatures ranging from 73.04 degrees to 83.12 degrees: Maputo, Mozambique, 83.12 degrees, Windhoek, Namibia, 82.94 degrees, Dakar, Senegal, 82.76 degrees, Cairo, Egypt, 82.04 degrees, Yaoundé, Cameroon, 81.86 degrees, Gaborone, Botswana, 80.96 degrees, Kigali, Rwanda, 80.42 degrees, Tripoli, Libya, 80.06 degrees, Harare, Zimbabwe, 78.8 degrees, Port Louis, Mauritius, 77.9 degrees, Antananarivo, Madagascar, 77.18 degrees, Nairobi, Kenya, 77.72 degrees, Pretoria, South Africa, 75.92 degrees (Johannesburg, 75.92 degrees, same province/region), Algiers, Algeria, 74.66 degrees, Tunis, Tunisia, 76.64 degrees, Addis, Ababa, Ethiopia, 74.48 degrees, and Rabat, Morocco, 73.04 degrees (Casablanca, 72.14 degrees) (also see Kaba, 2024c: p. 225 ).

According to Table 1 , 21 (52.5% out of 40) capital cities/regions have average nighttime temperatures ranging from 51.6 degrees to 69.62 degrees; and 10 (25%) have temperatures in the 50s, ranging from 51.6 degrees to 59.18 degrees: Addis, Ababa, Ethiopia, had the lowest minimum average annual temperature, 51.6 degrees, followed by Pretoria, South Africa, 53.42 degrees (Johannesburg, 53.42 degrees, same province/region), Gaborone, Botswana, 53.6 degrees, Rabat, Morocco, 54.5 degrees (Casablanca, 59.18 degrees), Harare, Zimbabwe, 54.68 degrees, Algiers, Algeria, 55.22 degrees, Windhoek, Namibia, 56.66 degrees, Antananarivo, Madagascar, 57.38 degrees, Nairobi, Kenya, 57.56 degrees, Tunis, Tunisia, 59.18 degrees, Tripoli, Libya, 60.44 degrees, Kigali, Rwanda, 61.7 degrees, Cairo, Egypt, 63.32 degrees, Dodoma, Tanzania, 63.86 degrees (Da res Salaam, 68.36 degrees), Yaoundé, Cameroon, 64.04 degrees, Lusaka, Zambia, 64.58 degrees, Maputo, Mozambique, 65.84 degrees, Port Louis, Mauritius, 66.02 degrees, Nouakchott, Mauritania, 68.9 degrees, Bamako, Mali, 69.62 degrees, and Banjul, Gambia, 69.62 degrees (also see Kaba, 2024c: pp. 225-226 ).

Of 32 capital cities/regions with available annual humidity data in the study, 9 (28.1%) have figures ranging from 29% to 59 percent. Of 34 capital cities/regions with available annual precipitation data, 15 (44.1%) have figures of 1000 or more, ranging from 1004 in Banjul, Gambia, to 2876 in Libreville, Gabon ( Kaba, 2024c: p. 227 ).

Political and economic capitals in Africa tend to be located along coastal regions of the continent. Pratolongo et al. (2019) claim that: “Globally, nearly all temperate coastal regions experienced net immigration during the last century…, and the increasing population associated with rapid economic growth… has led to extensive conversion of natural coastal wetlands to agriculture, aquaculture, and silviculture, as well as industrial and residential uses.” Discussing the drop in temperatures in some parts of the world in the past several decades, Wu et al. (2023) point out that: “…studies have shown that some local areas experience cooling effects due to ocean currents…” (pp. 1-2). Clarke (1971) points out that capital cities along the coasts of Africa were first established as trading posts by Europeans. For example, Zanzibar, Luanda, Lagos, Porto Novo, and Bissau were established by the Portuguese; Accra, by the British; and Gorée Island, Dakar, by the French. Other capital cities in Africa such as Freetown (1787), Monrovia (1822), and Libreville (1843), emerged as settlements established for former enslaved Africans. However, the majority of capital cities in Sub-Saharan Africa were constructed in the second half of the 1800s by European powers. They include, Abidjan (1903), Bamako (1883), Bangui (1899), Brazzaville (1883), Djibouti (1892), Fort Lamy (1900), Kampala (1890), Kinshasa (Leopoldville) (1881), Lourenco Marques (1887), Maseru (1869), Nairobi (1899), Yaounde (1889), and Zomba (1890). However, Addis Ababa, which was established in 1866, was not created by European powers. It is claimed to have been choice number eight of Emperor Menelik, as the capital city of Abyssinia, which later became Ethiopia (p. 33).

In Dakar, Senegal, which is only 39 feet above sea level, almost surrounded by the North Atlantic Ocean, and located at the westernmost point of Africa, Kaba (2024c) points out that its “winters are long, comfortable, dry, [and] windy.” This is due to the winds from the North Atlantic Ocean, which tend to be cold during the months of December to May. During the month of March 2024, every day the temperature in Dakar was in the 70s during the day (very pleasant), mostly ranging from 70 degrees to 78 degrees. The only exceptions were 1:45 pm, 2 pm and 3 pm on Tuesday, March 5, 2024, when it was at 80 degrees; and Sunday, March 17, 2024: 12 pm at 81 degrees: 1 pm at 82 degrees; 2 pm at 85 degrees; 3 pm at 85 degrees; 4 pm at 82 degrees; and 5 pm at 81 degrees. During the night in March 2024, the temperature dropped to 69 to 65 degrees every night, sometimes starting at 6pm in the evening until 9am the next morning. Finally, during the day and at night in Dakar in March 2024, the wind speed ranged from 6 miles per hour to 18 miles per hour. However, for about 90% of the time during the month of March 2024, the wind speed ranged from 10 to 20 miles per hour (p. 217).

The migration of Black people to political and economic capitals across Africa results in opportunities and challenges. This phenomenon, known as urbanization, is claimed to result in economic development not only for the cities or towns, but also an entire country or region. According to Chigudu and Chavunduka (2021) : “Urbanisation may be defined as a complex combination of socio-economic, political, cultural, demographic and environmental developments that have resulted in population increase and resource consumption in towns and cities” (p. 35). Although Africa is not as urbanized as Europe, Asia, and North America, its urbanization rate is gradually rising. Clarke (1971) notes that: “Africa is of course the least urbanized of all the continents, with only about 15.8 per cent of its population living in places with 20,000 inhabitants or more in 1967 …” (p. 34).

Hou et al. (2016) point out that the urbanization rate in Africa is 40 percent. However, the continent is projected to experience one of the fastest urbanization rates in the twenty-first century. By 2050, the estimated number of people residing in urban areas in Africa is projected to be 720 million (p. 381). Komminoth (2022, October) reports that: “…there is 20% more urban sprawl in African cities than in other cities in developing regions” (p. 15). It is reported that: “in 1950, Africa’s urban population was 33 million (14.9% of Africa’s total population and 4.5% of world urban population); Asia, 232 million (16.6% of Asia’s total population and 31.7% of world urban population); Europe, 280 million (51.2% of Europe’s total population and 38.2% of world urban population); and Northern America, 110 million (63.9% of total population of Northern America and 15% of world urban population). In 2000, for Africa, the figures were 295 million, and 37.1% and 10.3% respectively; Asia, 1.367 billion, and 37.1% and 47.8% respectively; Europe, 529 million, and 72.7% and 18.5% respectively; and Northern America, 250 million, and 79.1% and 8.8% respectively” ( Kaba & Kaba, 2020: pp. 136-137 ). Komminoth (2022, October) reports that in 1955, the urban growth rate in Sub-Saharan Africa was 4.91%, and 3.91% for the world average; those figures declined to 3.98% in 2020, and 1.9% respectively; and in 2025 they are projected to be 3.82% and 1.73% respectively (p. 17). According to Chigudu and Chavunduka (2021) : “The causes of urbanisation in Harare and Lusaka include natural population increase, migration to urban areas and the extension of city boundaries” (p. 35).

As a result of the rising urbanization rates in African nations, research shows a gradual economic development on the continent, including job creation, increase in the number of businesses, and the number of millionaires, with political and economic capitals being the engine of this gradual development. Clarke (1971) notes that: “Others have suggested that there are some advantages to the concentration of modernity in one large city, which may have strong generative and centrifugal influences as innovation centres. They argue that it is too expensive for developing countries to invest in small towns which may not become growth poles, and better to invest in agricultural development” (p. 40; also see to Tochihara et al., 2022: pp. 1-2) . Appiah (2023, November 6) points out that: “Similarly, providing a wide range of social and cultural amenities [in political and economic capitals across Africa] necessitates a workforce proficient in areas like education, healthcare, and cultural programming.” (p. 1). Komminoth (2022, October) reports that: “Cities across Africa are already booming: In Nigeria and Ghana, more than half of the population now lives in cities. In East Africa, although countries are relatively less urbanised (30% in Rwanda, 26% in Kenya, 20% in Ethiopia), they have the highest urban growth rates on the continent” (p. 15).

According to Beauchemin and Bocquier (2004) apart from rural regions, migration and urbanization are considered important parts of the development process. Research points to a relationship between urbanization and GDP per capita in Africa. Research also shows a relationship between urbanization and the United Nations Development Programme’s (UNDP) human development index. The argument is that urbanization tends to increase per capita income because it moves workers from rural areas where they work in agriculture to urban areas where they work in productive occupations such as manufacturing, commerce, and other service sector jobs. These workers are productive because they are in proximity to modern amenities in urban areas. Urbanization, which is connected to modernization, might lead to reduction in fertility and increase life expectancy. As a result, while less than half of Africa’s total population continues to reside in urban cities and towns, “…these centres generate over half of the continent’s gross domestic product (GDP)” (p. 2248; also see Tochihara et al., 2022: pp. 1-2) .

According to Takyi-Micah (February 21, 2022) , “As people travel to The Motherland [Africa], they will notice that some countries are as advanced as their Western counterparts with technology and infrastructure.” Appiah (2023, November 6) points out that the sharp increase in the demand for infrastructure and modern amenities in Africa’s rising cities presents opportunities for significant investments. Domestic and international investors see potential markets in areas such as housing, healthcare, entertainment, and hospitality. Financial or capital investments in urban centers across Africa result in job creation and economic growth. Skilled workers or professionals from many fields are also needed to maintain the modern infrastructures that are created, such as roads, public transportation, energy sources, and waste management (p. 1; also see Abubakar & Doan, 2017: p. 547 ; Cáceres et al., 2022: 719 ; Komminoth, 2022, October: pp. 17-18) .

According to Chisom (2024a, April 16) , the 10 wealthiest cities in Africa in 2024 with the greatest number of millionaires (United States dollars) are: Johannesburg, South Africa, 12,300 millionaires; Cape Town, South Africa, 7400 millionaires; Cairo, Egypt, 7200 millionaires; Nairobi, Kenya, 4400 millionaires; Lagos, Nigeria, 4200 millionaires; Cape Winelands (region), South Africa, 3600 millionaires; Durban, Umhlanga and Ballito, South Africa, 3500 millionaires; The Garden Route (region), South Africa, 3200 millionaires; Casablanca, Morocco, 2800 millionaires; and Pretoria, South Africa, 2100 millionaires.

In addition, most of the Black people returning to Africa in the past decade, are highly educated professionals of all sorts, including professors, medical doctors, lawyers, nurses, bankers, politicians, professional athletes, entertainers, and businessmen and women ( Kaba, 2009a , 2010a , 2010b , 2011d , 2011e , 2011f , 2012c , 2012d , 2013 , 2015 , 2016 ; Mazrui & Kaba, 2016 ). These experts contribute to the political and economic capitals across the continent where they are relocating. According to Essa (2018, January 18) , the 3000 to 5000 Black Americans residing in Accra, Ghana “…are teachers in small towns in the west or entrepreneurs in the capital and they say that even though living in Ghana is not always easy, they feel free and safe.” Beauchemin and Bocquier (2004) note that: “No study has evaluated the exact percentage of the contribution of international emigrants to real estate transactions. Nevertheless, authors agree on the growing influence of emigrants and on the essential role they already play in urbanisation…. in Dakar, international migrants form a replacement for the state since its withdrawal from the provision of public housing and social amenities” (p. 2257).

The African Union, governments in African nations, the African diaspora, and Africans in Africa have an advantageous position and must work together for the development of the continent. The African Union and the United States should build on their gradual positive relations to manage the transfer of expertise and wealth of Black people relocating to Africa ( Kaba, 2004 , 2005 , 2006c , 2009b , 2014 , 2019 , 2024b: p. 231 ). As the evidence above shows, Africa continues to be the least polluted, especially when compared with regions or countries outside of Africa. The continent is the second largest in the world in landmass with 30.32 million sq km, which is 20% of the world total landmass of 148.94 million sq km ( Kaba, 2024a: p. 57 ). In addition, The African Union and the United States must also work with returning diaspora Africans to promote religious ecumenism because the majority of them returning are Christians and Christians are now the majority in Africa. For example, “…in 2020 of the 1.282 billion people in Africa, Christians accounted for 657.3 million (51.3%), Muslims accounted for 553 million (43.1%), and adherents of Traditional African Religions accounted for 34.5 million (2.7%) ( Kaba, 2022: p. 29 ; also see Kaba, 2009c , 2024c: p. 232 ; Gerloff, 2010 ).

However, there are many interrelated economic, health, social, and environmental challenges that result from the urbanization of political and economic capitals across Africa. For example, Clarke (1971) points out that: “Some African governments are well aware of the problems of excessive concentration in capital cities and try to restrain them from becoming too big, too alien and too distinct from the remainder of their countries. Some governments (e.g. Kenya, Ghana) have turned migrants back, or have attempted to stabilize the labour force (e.g. Zambia), but in Tanzania there has been a deliberate policy to avoid over-concentration by developing big villages and small towns through modern farming, small industries, marketing facilities, social amenities, low-cost housing and basic infrastructures” (p. 40). Writing about the rapid urbanization of Africa’s great cities, Komminoth (2022, October) notes that: “Traditional transport infrastructure cannot cope with such exponential and unrestricted urban growth. African municipalities need to either bring opportunities (work, healthcare centres, food markets) closer to where people live, or give them a faster way to commute” (p. 15).

According to Chigudu and Chavunduka (2021) urbanization in Africa brings with it many serious challenges if it is not accompanied by the relevant infrastructures, amenities and services. In post-independence Zimbabwe and Zambia, for example, there was great migration of people to their capital cities searching for employment. As a result, Harare and Lusaka experienced the arrival of massive numbers of people but did not have the necessary infrastructure and modern amenities to support them. This led to high unemployment rates and overcrowding (p. 44; also see Beauchemin and Bocquier, 2004: p. 2247) .

Hou et al. (2016) point out that: “Such rapid urbanization [in Africa] will add great pressure to local ecosystems and pose various sustainable development challenges concerning local environments, employment, agriculture production and the water supply” (p. 381). According to Chigudu and Chavunduka (2021) : “Urbanisation adversely affects major cities, in this case, Harare in Zimbabwe and Lusaka in Zambia, and is associated with a high demand for housing, urban transport, water and sanitation” (p. 35). According to Chisom (2024b, July 3) , in mid-year 2024, the 5 most expensive cities in Africa are: Johannesburg, South Africa—Cost of Living Index: 38.4; Pretoria, South Africa—Cost of Living Index: 35.3; Cape Town, South Africa—Cost of Living Index: 35.2; Lagos, Nigeria—Cost of Living Index: 35.1; Durban, South Africa—Cost of Living Index: 32.9.

It is useful to note that scientists have claimed that our sun will die in 4.5 billion years. According to Sutter (2022) , “Our sun’s death is a long way off—about 4.5 billion years…” Countries and regions across Africa continue to contribute less than their European, Asian, and North American counterparts to global warming, but they still feel its effects. Komminoth (2022, October) reports that most: “African cities… have per capita emissions below their fair share of the global carbon budget” (p. 17). In 2013, the Carbon dioxide emissions per capita in Sub-Saharan Africa was only 0.8 tonnes; The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, 9.7 tonnes; East Asia and the Pacific, 5.8 tonnes; Europe and Central Asia, 5.3 tonnes; and the world average was 4.7 tonnes ( Human Development Report, 2016: p. 267 ).

According to Dalugoda et al. (2022) : “Climate change is the most significant global threat we face in the 21st century, and its health impacts are growing. A changing climate is a key factor in increasing the intensity, duration, and frequency of extremes of heat and the associated exacerbation of existing health challenges for all populations, especially vulnerable population groups, such as the elderly, people with chronic disabilities, young children, newborn babies, and pregnant women” (pp. 1-2: also see Price & Elu, 2017 ; Yaya et al., 2023: p. 2 ). Gebrechorkos et al. (2023) claim that: “Climate change is affecting the agriculture, water, and energy sectors in East Africa and the impact is projected to increase in the future. …” (p. 1). According to Bi et al. (2023) : “Africa is becoming one of the most sensitive and fragile areas of the global ecosystem due to its variable climate, complex topography, and diversity of natural ecosystems” (pp. 1-2; also see Collins, 2011: p. 3658 ).

Heat wave, heat stress, urban heat island, and dry-bulb, are the interrelated phrases used to discuss the negative impacts of global warming across the world, including in large cities in Africa. According to Ngoungue Langue et al. (2023) : “Heat waves are usually defined as consecutive days of extremely hot temperatures above a threshold temperature value”. In addition, “Heat waves can be defined from daily meteorological variables such as daily raw temperature ... mean daily wet-bulb temperature… or heat stress indices… using relative or absolute thresholds” (pp.1317-1318; also see Marx et al., 2021 ; Ullah et al., 2022: p. 2 ; Zhang et al., 2022: p. 1 ). Ngoungue Langue et al. (2023) add that: “Many factors can affect the definition of a heat wave, including the end-user sectors (human health, infrastructures, transport, agriculture) and also the climatic conditions of the regions….” (p. 1318). According to Ncongwane et al. (2021) : “Heat stress, a well-established phenomenon from extreme heat exposure, is projected to intensify in the future, owing to global warming. For example, it is predicted that temperatures will increase by 1.4˚C to 5.8˚C globally. In Africa, the rise in temperature is projected to range between 4˚C and 6˚C in the subtropics and between 3˚C and 5˚C in the tropics by the end of the century. This temperature increase is expected to exacerbate the number of extreme weather events, including heatwaves, which are already occurring more frequently, are more intense, and lasting longer” (p. 2).

According to Ncongwane et al. (2021) : “Africa, in particular, is considered to be the most vulnerable continent, with underrepresented extreme heat and heatwave exposure and corresponding heat health risks due to limited access to data. Consequently, it is projected that heat-related extreme events will be more severe and more frequent in Africa than anywhere else in the world. In addition, Africa’s vulnerability is partially attributed to the current problems of multidimensional poverty, poor governments, and political instability, which restricts the capacity of certain countries to meet the challenges raised by climate change” (p. 2). According to Parkes et al. (2022) : “Africa, with its large number of developing nations, is particularly vulnerable to heat stress and extra cooling demand … Africa is also undergoing rapid urbanisation which, when combined with the population growth, leads to a significant increase in demand on civic infrastructure. Several African cities are vulnerable to heat stress under current climate conditions where temperatures can be hazardous to human health for four months of the year” (p. 1532). Ullah et al. (2022) note that: “…the combined effects of dry-bulb temperature and humidity are projected to increase significantly in many regions” (p. 2).

Howard and Krishna (2022) point out that: “Exposure to extreme heat can cause exhaustion and heatstroke, a severe condition that occurs when body temperature rises to 40˚C or higher and if untreated can quickly damage the brain, heart, kidneys, and muscles, being fatal in 10% - 50% of all cases. Other symptoms of heat stress include swelling in the lower limbs, heat rash on the neck, cramps, headache, irritability, lethargy, and weakness. Heat can also cause severe dehydration and acute cerebrovascular accidents, and it can contribute… to thrombogenesis (blood clots)” (p. 1; also see Bühler et al., 2023: p. 1 ).

According to Dalugoda et al. (2022) : “There is evidence of heat stress as a risk for pregnant women due to 1) increased body weight, and body-fat-triggered increased core body temperature and heat production; 2) decreased ratio of surface area to body mass associated with pregnancy, reducing the heat-loss capacity of sweating, and 3) foetal metabolic rate increasing the maternal core body temperature” (pp. 1-2; also see Fischer et al., 2012: p. 1 ).

According to Ncongwane et al. (2021) : “Being located in hot regions and showing high rates of urban population growth, African cities, in particular, will likely face significantly increased exposure to dangerous heat in the coming decades. Furthermore, even under strict climate action, an increasing number of urban residents will be vulnerable to high levels of heatwaves in Africa” (p. 2). Ren (2023) points out that: “The urban heat island (UHI) effect is the phenomenon in which urban areas are warmer than the nearby suburbs. Random urban sprawl and the construction of highdensity buildings obstruct airflow, resulting in low wind speeds within the city, markedly exacerbating the UHI effect. In many cities, the urban heat island intensity (UHII) reaches about 5˚C. UHI effect has become one of the important problems for urban environment and human health” (p. 1; also see Bühler et al., 2023: p. 1 ). According to Tong et al. (2021), urban areas tend to be warmer than rural areas. Although a city such as London is 4˚C higher than outer rural areas of the city, the figure can increase to 10˚C with heat waves. Urban heat islands are caused when cities use materials such as metal, concrete, and brick. These materials are very good at absorbing and storing the sun’s heat. With lack of vegetations that tend to cool areas, and the prevalence of industrial and infrastructure activities such as the use of air conditioners, mass transportation, and lighting, urban heat islands can impact people’s health, such as mortality and morbidity (p. 1; also see Yang et al., 2023: p. 1 ).

Tong et al. (2021) add that: “Surface reflectivity (albedo) in urban areas is one of the most important determinants of the magnitude of the heat island effect. Increasing reflectivity, for example by painting surfaces white, can reduce urban air temperatures by 1˚C - 3.5˚C … in combination, increasing the albedo and the vegetated area can lead to a 48% reduction in annual emergency service calls. … this combination could offset 40% - 99% of the projected increase in heat related mortality arising from climate change” (p. 2). According to Ncongwane et al. (2021) : “The Urban Heat Island (UHI) phenomena and compounding factors, such as the aging population, suggest that heat health risks will be pertinent, threatening the progress towards Sustainable Development Goal” (p. 2). It is reported that heatwave resulted in deaths in Europe and North America: “approximately 70,000 and 500 in Europe in 2003 and 2006, respectively, 225 in North America in 2006, and 55,000 in Eastern Europe and western Russia in 2010…” ( Ncongwane et al., 2021: p. 2 ; also see Fischer et al., 2012: p. 1 ; Howard & Krishna, 2022: p. 1 ).

According to Parkes et al. (2022) : “The impacts of high temperatures on economic output [show that] … countries with a high average temperature are shown to experience significant reductions in gross domestic product (GDP) when temperatures rise further” (p. 1532). Writing about the economic impact of global warming, Kompas et al. (2018) note of: “…considerable global economic gains from complying with the Paris Climate Accord for 139 countries. … with the comparative case of a temperature increase of four degrees, the global gains from complying with the 2˚ target are approximately US$17,489 billion per year in the long run (year 2100). The relative damages from not complying to Sub-Sahara Africa, India, and Southeast Asia are especially severe.” (1153; also see Saeed et al., 2022 : pp. 1, 10-11: Ngepah et al., 2022: p. 1 ).