Cameroon’s energy potential primarily comprises hydroelectricity (64%), thermal energy (30%), and other renewable energies (about 6%). The installed capacity increased from 933 MW to 1650 MW by 2020, falling short of the planned target of 3000 MW by a deficit of 1350 MW. Consequently, Cameroon has developed strategies like the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) and the Growth and Employment Strategy Paper (GESP). The primary goal of these strategies is to significantly reduce poverty by fostering strong and sustainable economic growth. In December 1998, the first law on the electricity sector was enacted. Its aim was to modernize and improve the quality of electricity service by engaging the private sector to finance investments and manage the network, thus reducing the state budget’s burden. However, these programs did not achieve the desired outcomes. Despite intentions, the country’s growth rate decreased from 2.8% in 2005 to 3.3% in 2007, alongside inflation rising from 1.1% to 5.3% [7] . This was exacerbated by the low execution level of approved projects, inadequate construction of certain power stations, and an insufficient supply of nearly 900 MW of energy.

In 2020, the National Development Strategy (SND30) will be updated based on a revision of the DSCE. This update aims to align it with national socio-economic developments and the current international context, while also addressing the energy sector’s shortcomings identified during the DSCE’s implementation [6] . Among the reasons for these shortcomings in the sector are the mismatch between supply and demand, the deteriorated state of generation, transmission, and distribution infrastructure, and delays in constructing new generation dams as identified in the Electricity Sector Development Plan (PDSE 2030). For the period 2020-2030, the goal is to reach an installed production capacity of 5000 MW by 2035 to meet the energy needs of the national economy and households, and to consider exporting surplus to neighboring countries.

Many previous studies on energy in Cameroon have focused on demand and supply. Some authors suggest that Cameroon’s energy policies should prioritize diversified energy production [8] , with a greater emphasis on renewable energies, not only due to Cameroon’s potential but also to ensure sustainable development. Despite efforts by international organizations responsible for hydropower issues to update statistics, the absence of clear and reliable data on the potential and development of hydropower in Cameroon remains a significant obstacle to optimally utilizing the country’s vast hydropower capacity [1] . Although many studies have assessed the country’s energy potential, very few have explored alternative solutions to hydropower for addressing the energy deficit [9] .

According to a literature review on energy production, the country’s installed electricity generation capacity in 2018 was approximately 1402 MW, with 56.15% from hydroelectric sources, 43.84% from fossil fuels (17.55% natural gas and 26.29% oil), and the remainder from solar energy [9] . In 2020, the Energy of Cameroon (ENEO), the main energy supplier, reported electricity production of about 1529 MW, with 61.7% from hydroelectric power stations, 24.1% from thermal power stations, 14.1% from gas power stations, and 0.1% from solar energy. By 2021, Cameroon’s energy supply decreased to an estimated 1047 MW, with an installed capacity of 822 MW from hydroelectric power stations by year-end—a roughly 30% decrease compared to the previous year—against an estimated energy demand of 1379 MW [10] , a drop of around 30% compared with the previous year, against an estimated energy demand of 1379 MW. In its annual report, ENEO revealed that its electricity installations generated almost 807 MW. This shortfall was attributed to low water levels and challenges in delivering fuel to thermal power stations in the country’s north. In 2022, generation supply figures were mixed. The Ministry of Water Resources and Energy (MINEE) reported a 1500 MW generation, marking an 87.34% increase in installed capacity from 822 MW in 2008. Meanwhile, another source cited a production of around 1990 MW [11] . As of 2022, Cameroon has not yet achieved its planned capacity of 3000 MW set for 2020, despite numerous programs implemented by the government in the electricity sector. The country still faces an energy deficit, with only 63.5% of its population having access to electricity in 2021, up from 49% in 2013, indicating a shortfall of around 330 MW. Demand for electricity is growing at an estimated 7.5% annually. ENEO is responsible for supplying 70% of the electricity consumed by households and businesses in Cameroon, with the remaining 30% provided by independent producers.

The Cameroonian government has allocated nearly 3500 billion CFA francs to address its financial deficit: 2000 billion for production, 1000 billion for upgrading the electricity transmission network (including the replacement of wooden poles with concrete ones and new transformers), and 500 billion for improving electricity distribution. Following a period of inactivity in the electricity sector from 1990 to 2006, Cameroon initiated several key projects. In 2008, the Energy Sector Development Project (PDSEN) was launched with the goal of increasing access to modern energy in rural areas and enhancing the planning and management of energy resources by specialized institutions, supported by a USD 50 million investment from the World Bank. According to recent statistics shared by the Minister of the Economy, Planning and Regional Development (MINEPAT) during a workshop in June 2023, Cameroon, which currently produces approximately 1682 MW of energy, aims to increase its production to 5000 MW by 2035 [12] .

Since 1948, the country has constructed large hydroelectric schemes and thermal power stations to supply its population with electrical energy. Today, new hydroelectric dams and solar power stations are being built or are under construction, as illustrated in Figure 1 .

Table 1 shows statistics on the production capacity and installed power of various energy sources in Cameroon.

The first hydroelectric power stations in Cameroon were inaugurated in 1929 to supply electricity to the Muyuka region [10] as a private operation. In 1948, the semi-public company Énergie Électrique du Cameroun (ENELCAM) was established to develop the Edéa I hydroelectric plant (22 MW) on the Sanaga River, providing electricity to Douala and Edéa. Since then, the installed energy capacity has increased with the construction of hydroelectric dams and thermal power stations. Recent data from 2019 estimates Cameroon’s hydroelectric potential at 1367 MW against a demand of around 2000 MW, according to the World Bank. The country’s current total hydroelectric generating capacity is approximately 947 MW, broken down as follows:

Song-Loulou is the power station with the largest installed electricity generation capacity in Cameroon, boasting 384 MW since 1981. Situated upstream of Edéa, it connects to the southern interconnected grid (RIS). Standing 39 meters high, it was constructed in two phases, each comprising 4 turbine-generator sets of 48 MW, between 1976 and 1985. However, production has been declining for two decades due to maintenance issues frequently causing turbine stoppages. Much of the production equipment is now obsolete.

From 1948, ENELCAM began construction of the Edéa I hydroelectric power station on the Sanaga River, aimed at supplying Douala and Edéa. Initially inaugurated in 1954 with a capacity of 22 MW, the plant was expanded to 276 MW by 1976, featuring 14 generating units. Constructed in three phases, its primary purpose was to power Alucam, an aluminum production company founded in 1954. However, due to aging and obsolete equipment, the plant’s current production capacity has decreased to 264 MW [6] .

The Bamendjin, Mape, Mbakaou, and Lom-Pangar dams are the main reservoirs that supply water to the hydroelectric plants on the Sanaga River, as illustrated in Figure 2 .

It has an installed generating capacity of 211 MW/day, which feeds into the RIS. It is expected to supply electricity to six of Cameroon’s ten regions, thereby reducing the RIS’s low energy supply. The current flow of the River Ntem is around 470 m³/s, but over the past two years, this has drastically fallen to 80 m³/s. In February 2023, a severe drought caused a period of low water levels, reducing its capacity to just 35 MW, or nearly 82%. With the return of the rains at the end of March 2023, the dam was once again operating at full capacity, producing almost 200 MW. After a 5-year delay, the Memve’ele dam began operating at full capacity in October 2022. A 225 kV transmission line has been carrying the energy produced by the dam from Nyabizan (Southern region) to Yaoundé (Central region) since September 2022. A few years ago, the government announced the Memve’ele 2 project, aimed at constructing a reservoir on the Ntem to definitively resolve the river’s fluctuating hydrology. This project is still in the planning stages [14] .

The Mekin power station, located on the Dja River—a tributary of the Sangha that flows into the Congo River—has a capacity of 15 MW and stands 13 m tall. It is Cameroon’s smallest hydroelectric dam based on installed capacity. Equipped with three horizontally arranged turbine-generator sets, each capable of producing 5 MW, the Mekin hydroelectric dam provides 75% of its electricity to the Southern Interconnected System (RIS). Additionally, it supplies power to three localities in the Centre and South regions.

The Lagdo Dam, constructed in northern Cameroon from 1977 to 1982, was the first dam in the region. Its reservoir can hold up to 7.7 billion cubic meters of water and powers a hydroelectric station with an original capacity of 72 MW. Serving as the primary electricity source for the Northern Interconnected Network (RIN), the dam has faced challenges due to silting and deteriorating infrastructure, reducing its output to as low as 30 MW and leading to load shedding. A rehabilitation project aimed at refurbishing the four turbines and other equipment is expected to increase the plant’s capacity to 80 MW [15] . The refurbishment will cost the Cameroon government nearly 152.4 million euros.

Mbakaou, Cameroon’s first private hydroelectric dam, was commissioned in April 2022 in the Adamaoua region. It utilizes a flow of 13 m³/s from the Djerem River and is equipped with two Kaplan turbines, generating a total rated power of 1.49 MW [16] . The power could be increased to 2.8 MW by 2026 to meet the growing needs of the population or if the RIN network expands to nearby towns like Ngaoundal and Banyo. The dam will significantly decrease load shedding and enhance living conditions in the area. It will also lead to the partial or complete closure of the Tibati, Ngaoundal, and Mbakaou thermal power stations, which were the primary power sources for these Adamaoua towns until December 2021. Environmentally, the Mbakaou mini power plant will allow Cameroon to reduce its CO₂ emissions by at least 4893 tonnes annually.

Thermal power serves as the short-term solution implemented by the Cameroonian government to address the energy deficit not met by the operational hydroelectric power stations. National thermal production is estimated at 567.64 MW [17] [18] , with the commissioning of new thermal power stations in Kribi (216 MW, 2013); Logbaba (150 MW, 2005); Dibamba (86 MW, 2009); Limbé (85 MW, 2004); Ahala (20 MW, 2015); and the old ones at Bertoua (13 MW, 2019); Oyomabang 1 and 2 (32 MW, 2002); Bamenda (20 MW); Bassa 2 and 3 (18 MW), Bafoussam (14 MW) [19] and others. There are also numerous isolated power stations with a total production capacity of 37,982 MW [18] , electrifying surrounding localities. This brings the total national thermal generation capacity to 605,622 MW.

Although Cameroon produces crude oil, it still heavily relies on importing liquefied petroleum products. Foreign trade statistics reveal a significant rise in imports from 1.026 million tons in 2018 to 1.62 million tons in 2020, marking a 59% increase. This surge in imports is due to growing demand and the disruption of SONARA’s activities after the May 2019 incident [20] . Cameroon produces 81,000 b/d of crude oil and ranks 14th in Africa [21] . Production has decreased from 116,000 barrels per day in 2000 to 56,000 b/d, a 51.73% reduction. Cameroon produces 2.68 billion m³/year of natural gas and 1.2 million tonnes of liquefied natural gas (LNG) annually, with an estimated potential of 570 billion m³ as of 2007 [8] . In 2022, gas production reached a volume of 2498.23 million m³. The amount of natural gas sold to the Kribi thermal power plant for electricity production was 11.755 billion cubic feet. The Cameroon Oil Depots Company is facing significant challenges in supplying the domestic market due to rising demand. Consequently, the Cameroonian government is increasingly relying on international market imports [8] . Nearly two-thirds of the petroleum products consumed in the country are imported. This reliance on external sources, coupled with the prevailing economic conditions, has led to fuel price increases from 15.8% to 36.5%. The aim of this adjustment is to cut fuel subsidies by an average of less than 50% to alleviate the strain on public finances. The government reports a cumulative loss exceeding 1268 billion FCFA (2 billion euros) since 2020 [22] . Since February 2023, the price of a liter of super has been 730 FCFA, marking an increase of 100 FCFA. A liter of diesel now costs 720 FCFA, up by 175 FCFA. This has resulted in higher transportation costs, while only oil and domestic gas prices have remained stable.

In its 2016 Rural Electrification Development Plan (PDER), the government aimed to have renewable energies constitute 25% of the national electricity mix by 2035, totaling 1500 MW. This includes 650 MW (11%) from small hydroelectricity, 360 MW (6%) from photovoltaic solar, 420 MW (7%) from biomass, and 60 MW (1%) from wind power [14] .

With its extensive network of rivers and streams, the country’s potential for small hydroelectric power has been evaluated, identifying viable sites [11] . These sites are based on run-of-river systems with capacities ranging from 100 kW to 10,000 kW, such as Baré-Bakem at 110 kW and Nkam à Bexem at 9700 kW [5] [18] . Cameroon has initiated a comprehensive program to construct 50 mini hydroelectric power plants. This strategy, backed by a public-private partnership, aims to improve the quality of electrical service and reduce the production costs associated with diesel-fired thermal power plants, which significantly burden the public finances [14] . The estimated total mini-hydro capacity of the identified sites is around 158.241 MW [11] , and this potential should be realized by 2035.

Although the country has significant potential for solar energy, with average sunshine levels of around 5.8 kWh/m²/day in the north and 4 kWh/m²/day in the south, its development has been slow [23] . The Guider modular solar power plant in the north, with a capacity of 15 MW, is currently producing 1.5 MW, with plans to reach full capacity by the end of 2022. This should help reduce the deficit in the Northern Interconnected Grid (NIG). However, the challenges of storing and transporting solar energy prevent this solution from being optimal, despite its potential. ENEO, the concessionaire for the country’s public electricity service, is planning to construct new solar power plants in northern Cameroon. The Maroua and Guider power plants, Cameroon’s first public solar project with a combined capacity of 30 MW, were commissioned by MINEE in September 2023. Additionally, a 20 MW solar power plant is planned for the city of Garoua. These two solar plants will supply a total of 30 MW of clean energy to the RIN, enabling the shutdown of previously used thermal power plants in this region. This transition will result in budget savings for the State [24] .

Biomass in Cameroon, although still in its infancy, has been installed in several African countries. Private initiatives and projects have been underway since 2022, aiming at future exploitation. Biomass consists mainly of wood fuels, wood processing residues, agricultural residues, and food processing industry residues [8] . Its production capacity currently represents only 1% of Cameroon’s energy mix. However, studies have shown that 37 identified sites across the country could produce up to 37 MW of electrical energy from biomass, according to the Rural Electrification Agency (AER). Biomass currently meets 70% of the country’s energy demand [5] . Traditional biomass sources account for 74.22% of the country’s primary energy consumption [7] .

The potential of wind power is relatively modest and challenging to exploit due to low wind speeds, which rarely exceed 5 m/s [4] [8] . The Far North is an ideal location for wind power development, as its three regions have the highest wind speeds, between 3 and 5 m/s, offering a significant production capacity. There are vast areas where the average wind speed is well above 4 m/s at a height of 10 m above ground level [11] . In southern Cameroon, average wind speeds are 1.2 to 2.4 m/s lower than in the north. Some areas, like Bamenda, have wind power installations with average speeds of around 2.5 m/s in April. Plans to build a 42 MW wind farm in the Bamboutos mountains in the West, North-West, and South-West regions have been on hold since 2015 [25] . This project is expected to diversify Cameroon’s energy mix, currently dominated by hydroelectricity, which accounts for 61.7% of national production, compared to 1% for biomass and 0% for wind power [26] .

The need to introduce renewable energies into energy production arises from their ability to supply energy to remote areas through small-scale decentralized electrification. Increasing energy supply through renewable energies will enhance goods production and labor productivity by domesticating the technology derived from renewable energy deployment [27] . This is because working long hours, day and night, even in rural areas, will enable diversified economic growth.

Electricity is recognized as a key driver of economic development [28] and the improvement of living conditions in any country. Over the past ten years, Cameroon has been constructing new second-generation hydroelectric dams, primarily in the Sanaga basin, to reduce the country’s significant energy deficit. Table 2 displays the hydropower projects or dams currently under construction.

To progressively reduce the country’s current energy deficit by producing 5000 MW and avoid an imbalance between supply and demand by 2035, the State of Cameroon has identified several sites for future hydroelectric schemes [29] [30] . This energy production will not only satisfy local industrial and household demand but also allow for the export of surplus energy to neighboring countries facing difficulties, such as Chad, the Central African Republic, and especially Nigeria. In its National Development Strategy-SND 30, the Cameroon government is collaborating with financial partners on several future projects, as illustrated in Table 3 .

All these projects, among the 17 priority hydroelectric projects in Cameroon, are part of the Electricity Sector Development Plan (PDSE) implementation. They aim to maintain the supply-demand balance for electricity in the Southern Interconnected System, according to MINEE.

The methodology for analyzing the causes of Cameroon’s energy crisis involved visiting hydroelectric sites to examine the production systems of current power stations and the plans for new ones. This field trip, supplemented by official documents detailing Cameroon’s strategies, revealed the country’s electricity supply deficit and its vulnerability to load shedding. The crisis is largely attributed to the economic and financial downturn of the 1990s, which hindered the development of hydroelectric projects and the maintenance of existing facilities. Factors such as inadequate thermoelectric backup, slow development of other renewable energies, under-exploitation of available resources, and insufficient investment in rehabilitation and generation capacity [14] , have been briefly described and are still relevant today. The main causes of the ongoing energy crisis in Cameroon since 2000 are listed in Table 5 .

According to government forecasts, production capacity will increase from 1540 MW in 2022 to 2000 MW in 2024, thanks to the commissioning of the Nachtigal hydroelectric power plant with an installed capacity of 420 MW, and the solar power plants under construction on the Northern Interconnected Network (RIN). The first two modular solar power plants in Maroua and Guider, with battery storage and a combined capacity of 30 MW, were commissioned in September 2023. The Cameroonian government states that Cameroon needs almost 2000 billion euros to finance its energy projects. These funds will support the construction of the Limbé gas power plant (350 MW), the Grand Eweng, Chollet, Kikot, Katsina Ala (285 MW), and Menchum (72 MW) hydroelectric dams, among others. Due to a lack of funding and credible partners, some hydroelectric projects like the Bini Warack dam (75 MW) in the Adamaoua region have been put on hold. However, commissioning this dam, along with the Lagdo dam, could reduce the energy deficit in the northern regions.

In 2006, the Cameroonian government developed the Electricity Sector Development Plan for 2030 (PDSE-2030) to address the growing demand for electricity, currently estimated at over 115 billion kWh/year [33] . Previously, the installed power generation capacity stood at 966 MW, with 75% coming from hydroelectric sources. However, the lack of maintenance and upkeep for production equipment made it challenging to satisfy the increasing demand [14] .

Figure 5 illustrates that well before 2008, electricity demand consistently exceeded supply. The gap between supply and demand started to widen from the year 2000 onwards, driven by significant population and industrial growth.

Following the failure of the National Poverty Reduction Strategy initiated in 2004, including the preceding PDSE-2030 study, Cameroonian authorities in 2009 formulated a comprehensive development plan for the short, medium, and long term, named “Vision Cameroun 2035”. This vision aimed to increase Cameroon’s exports, particularly electricity exports to neighboring countries. Its primary goal was to modernize the economy, accelerate development, and achieve middle-income status in the medium term, ultimately transforming Cameroon into an industrialized or emerging country beyond 2030.

Despite all these initiatives, Figure 6 shows that Cameroon’s energy demand, compared with data for previous years (2010-2018) obtained by Laouan Marius et al. or Kidmo [4] [9] , is increasing considerably in most sectors, especially in the

industrial sector, which frequently resorts to using generators. Given that energy is crucial for any country’s development, it is imperative for Cameroon to address the 330 MW deficit in industrial energy needs by 2020. With an energy mix comprising 80% hydropower, 14% gas, and 6% solar, wind, and biomass, the country depends largely on hydropower to meet its energy needs. In 2016, the demand was estimated to grow by over 5% per year [34] . Despite efforts, the supply-demand gap is expected to widen by 7.5% annually from 2022 onwards.

Figures assessing the country’s energy production potential and capacity in recent years vary across the literature, highlighting the problem of updating information. A review of the current literature on hydropower in Cameroon reveals unclear and divergent assessments of energy potential [6] . This discrepancy in assessing potential and the resulting outcomes has hindered accurate estimation of this source, as well as demand and supply in the country. The absence of precise information in scientific articles has often led us to rely on national or international publications and reports specializing in energy, particularly hydropower. The latter have had to publish more detailed information about our problem, specifically on the state of existing hydropower plants, their potential extension or renovation, new dam construction projects in their various stages of development, and the obstacles encountered.

In the push for industrialization and modernization, Cameroon encounters challenges such as a lack of funding and reliable technical partners. Hydroelectric projects demand significant capital and investment, despite the lower cost of electricity for consumers. Before 2013, the Cameroonian government announced plans to construct several hydroelectric dams, with a combined value of over 1389.4 billion francs, to be financed by both the state and private investors. Figure 7 illustrates the development of hydropower projects from 2013 to 2023. Insufficient electricity production significantly hampers economic activity and private investment. This issue is particularly evident in the aluminum sector,

which relies on increased energy production capacity for development [35] . Several mining projects are currently pending government approval, as they are planned alongside power plants to mitigate the issue of long-distance energy transportation.

To achieve the targeted energy production of 5000 MW, it is advisable to take steps to avoid certain obstacles, similar to those encountered in Cameroon’s initial programs. The potential obstacles impacting this objective are listed in Table 6 below:

In addition to potential internal obstacles that could hinder reaching a 5000 MW capacity, there are external factors beyond Cameroon’s control that might cause unexpected delays in energy production. Large-scale operations like these are typically financed through international loans. However, access to international funds for electricity projects is limited due to low load factors and the pricing policies in countries with low per capita incomes. These policies increase operational risks, as government-imposed tariffs often clash with the economic and financial goals of project owners. Ideally, a strategy should be developed to encourage as much self-financing of projects as possible. This can be achieved by enhancing their profitability through seeking public funds (both bilateral and multilateral loans), utilizing co-financing options with export credits, and implementing a tariff system that promotes better resource allocation and economic efficiency. This type of financing, subject to global economic fluctuations, will impact the acquisition of production equipment for these priority projects. Costs from intermediaries’ margins and taxes could also increase the overall cost of each project, potentially hindering their construction. Additionally, climate changes affecting rainfall and, consequently, water storage in rivers and reservoirs, will impact hydroelectric dam production. It is important to note that delays in decision-making or agreements among parties involved in a project will likely increase its overall cost. This is due to factors such as technological advances in production equipment, financial costs, variations in economic growth rates, externalities, the effect of integration on the national economy, and changes in global energy markets. These factors could affect the realization of projects and prevent energy projections from becoming a reality.