Figure 1 shows the location of the springs in the area map.

The three springs in the study are located in the Manga region in Nyamira county in Kenya [31] . The position and elevation, however, are shown in Table 1 .

According to [31] , the three springs are sources of safe water for drinking. In addition, the water quality index (WQI) and the water quality status (WQS) obtained for the three springs in the year 2018 are shown in Table 2 .

Sample collection was done between 12.00 noon and 5.00 pm (East African Standard Time) during the rainy season in November 2018. A 1.0-litre capacity bottle washed with distilled water and rinsed with water from respective springs was used to collect samples from each spring.

The on-site analysis was done for two parameters in this study. This includes pH

and total dissolved solids (TDS) using the Hanna Combo H198129 water tester.

Other parameters of importance in this study were total alkalinity and calcium, which were characterized in the laboratory in Kisumu by the examination standards established in 2005 for water and wastewater [32] . For instance, the titration method was used in characterizing calcium parameters. This characterization was also inferred from World Health Organization (WHO) standards [33] as well as Kenyan standards by the Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) [34] .

The Langelier saturation index calculation was based on a modification made by Carrier to Professor W. F. Langelier’s work. In this case, the Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) is given by

$\text{LSI}=\text{pH}-\text{pHst}$(1)

[12] [13] LSI is the Langelier Saturation Index, pH is the measured pH, and pH is the theoretical pH at saturation of chemical and physical parameters of water. The parameters in this case include total dissolved solids, temperature, calcium, and total alkalinity.

$\text{pHst}=\left(9.3+A+B\right)-\left(C+D\right)$(2)

Equation (2) involves calcium carbonate saturation points, calculated based on the assumption that the pH ranges between 6 and 9.

Where

$A=\frac{{\text{Log}}_{10}\left(\text{TDS}\right)-1}{10}$(3)

$B=-13.12\times {\text{Log}}_{10}\left(˚\text{C}+273\right)+34.55$(4)

$C={\text{Log}}_{10}\left({\text{Ca}}^{2+}\right)-0.4$(5)

$D={\text{Log}}_{10}\left(\text{Alkalinity}\right)$(6)

The Ryznar Stability index is calculated by

$\text{RSI}=2\text{pHst}-\text{pH}$(7)

where pH is the measured pH while pHst is the theoretical saturation pH as obtained in Equation (2).

The Puckorius scaling index was calculated by

$\text{PSI}=2\text{pHeq}-\text{pHst}$(8)

where

$\text{pHeq}=1.465\times \text{Log}\left(\text{Alkalinity}\right)+4.54$(9)

and

$\text{pHst}=1.465+\text{Log}\left(\text{Alkalinity}\right)+4.54$(10)

The results of parameters essential in this study are given in Table 3 alongside their respective standards recommended by either KEBS or WHO.

From Table 3 , the values of pH range are 5.1 to 5.7 while their standard values range from 6.5 to 8.5.

These values are within the acidic region of the pH scale as shown in Table 4 .

The value of Calcium, on the other hand, ranges between 6 mg/l and nine mg/l, with the KEBS standard at a maximum of 150 mg/l.

Total alkalinity is 17 mg CaCO₃/l at SP2, which is lower compared to SP1 and SP3 at the same level, 20 mg CaCO₃/l.

TDS values are 25 mg/l, 22 mg/l and 23 mg/l for SP1, SP2 and SP3 respectively.

Table 5 shows the calculated values of quantities that are used to obtain LSI in Equation (1), RSI in Equation (7).

From Table 5 , the LSI of SP1, SP2, and SP3 are −3.93, −4.71, and −4.17, respectively. It is, therefore, evident that all LSI values are negative. According to [19] [20] , LSI values can be negative, zero, or positive. In this case, the negative values mean that the water in the study area is not saturated and requires more metals to dissolve to achieve stability. As a result, it has the potential to cause corrosion. Similar results of LSI less than −4.0 have been obtained previously by Dr. B.S Shankar [35] in sample numbers 10, 11, and 20 in a groundwater study in India.

Moreover, all the LSI values are less than −2; according to [30] , as interpreted in Table 6 , the tendency of the water from the three springs to cause corrosion is intolerable.

The RSIs of SP1, SP2, and SP3 are 14.15, 14.53, and 13.74, respectively, as shown in Table 5 . In addition, the average value is 14.14, and maximum value is 14.53 while the minimum is 13.74 as shown in Table 9 . Moreover, these values are more significant than 9; hence, from the interpretation by B. S. Shankar [35] in Table 7 , the tendency of the water from the three springs to corrosion is intolerable.

Table 8 shows PSI values obtained using Equation (8).

PSI of SP1, SP2, and SP3 are 5.58, 5.45, and 5.58, respectively, as shown in Table 8 . In addition, the average value is 5.54, and maximum value is 5.58 while the minimum is 5.45 as shown in Table 9 . It is also evident that these values are less than 6 for all the three springs. A comparison to Alipour et al. [18] in their evaluation of corrosion and scaling tendency research shows that scaling is unlikely to occur when using the water from the three springs.

Table 9 shows the descriptive statistical analysis of the LSI, RSI, and PSI of the groundwater obtained from the three springs in the Manga region. From the interpretation of the indices, it is evident that the water during the study period was corrosive and was unlikely to scale.

Similarly, results of groundwater having an intolerable corrosion tendency have been obtained previously by researchers worldwide. For instance, Atasoyet al. [36] 2007, in their research on groundwater from Harran in Türkiye, noted that the water had an intolerable corrosion tendency. On the other hand, Dr.B.S Shankar [35] , in his study on groundwater of the K.R.Puram area in Bangalore, India, found that 40% and 66.67% of water samples using LSI and RSI, respectively, had intolerable corrosion.