The categorization of countries or entities under geographic zones tends to be connected to climate. For example, of 58 countries/entities in Africa, 44 (75.9%) are categorized under tropics, and 14 (24.1%) are categorized under equatorial tropics/subtropics, subtropical, subtropical/desert, subtropics of the northern hemisphere and subtropics of the southern hemisphere ( Kaba, 2024a: p. 65 ; also see Beck et al., 2018; Cole, 2008; Domroes, 2003 ). The phenomenon called latitude is connected to this categorization of countries and entities, because it relates to temperate climates, which sometimes is a proxy for cooler climates or climatic seasons. The farther away a country or geographic territory is from the equator (north or south, or up or down, or Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere), the more temperate the climate is reported to be. For example, “the geographical coordinates of Washington, D.C. are 38.895 deg latitude, −77.036 deg longitude, and 20 ft [6.1 meters] elevation.” These geographical coordinates of Washington, D.C. are connected to its climate or weather. For example, its “summers are warm and muggy, the winters are very cold and snowy, and it is partly cloudy year round. Over the course of the year, the temperature typically varies from 29˚F to 88˚F and is rarely below 17˚F or above 96˚F” (“Climate and Average Weather Year Round in Washington, D.C. United States,” 2024) . Comparing Washington, D.C. to its southern neighbor, Mexico City, with “geographical coordinates of … 19.428 deg latitude, −99.128 deg longitude, and 7349 ft [2,240 meters] elevation,” its “wet season is warm and overcast and the dry season is comfortable and partly cloudy. Over the course of the year, the temperature typically varies from 43˚F to 80˚F and is rarely below 37˚F or above 86˚F” (“Climate and Average Weather Year-Round in Mexico City Mexico,” 2024) . In Africa, in Dakar, Senegal, which is almost surrounded by the North Atlantic Ocean, its “geographical coordinates… are 14.694 deg latitude, −17.444 deg longitude, and 39 ft [11.9 meters] elevation”, and its “summers are long, hot, oppressive, and overcast and the winters are long, comfortable, dry, windy, and partly cloudy. Over the course of the year, the temperature typically varies from 65˚F to 88˚F and is rarely below 61˚F or above 92˚F” (“Climate and Average Weather Year-Round in Dakar, Senegal,” 2024) .

The information presented above illustrates that both latitude and altitude play important roles in the climate of a geographic region. For example, compared to Mexico City, Washington, D.C. is on a higher latitude, which results in both the low for ‘temperature varies’ and ‘rarely below’ are below the freezing point of 32 degrees or lower. However, the fact that its altitude or elevation from sea level is only 20 feet is a significant contributing factor as to why its “summers are warm and muggy” and the high for the ‘weather varies’ is 88 degrees and ‘rarely above’ 96 degrees. For Mexico City, its latitude figure is half that of Washington, D.C., the low for it varies figure is 43 degrees and the low for the ‘rarely below’ figure is 37 degrees. However, because of its significantly high altitude of 7349 feet, is a significant factor as to why the high for it varies temperature is 80 degrees and the high for ‘rarely above’ figure is 86 degrees.

For Dakar, Senegal, with its latitude figure of 24.2 deg lower than that of Washington, D.C., yet its high varies figure of 88 degrees is the same as Washington, D.C. and the high for its rarely above is 92 degrees, four degrees below the figure for Washington, D.C. at 96 degrees. One can provide two explanations for this observation. The first is that the eastern seaboard of the United States shares the North Atlantic Ocean as Dakar, and Senegal in general. The second explanation is that Dakar as a peninsular goes out west deep into the ocean, to the point whereby it is almost surrounded by the North Atlantic Ocean. In fact, the westernmost point of Africa is found in Dakar. This is the reason why it is noted above about Dakar that its “winters are long, comfortable, dry, windy…” because the North Atlantic Ocean gets very cold from December to early May. For example, every single day for the entire month of March 2024, the daily temperature for Dakar, Senegal, was in the 70s in the day (mostly from 70 degrees to 78 degrees, with the exception of 1:45 pm, 2 pm and 3 pm on Tuesday, March 5, when it was at 80 degrees; and Sunday, March 17: 12 pm at 81 degrees: 1 pm at 82 degrees; 2 pm at 85 degrees; 3 pm at 85 degrees; 4 pm at 82 degrees; and 5 pm at 81 degrees) and during nighttime the temperature dropped below 70 degrees every single night, ranging from 69 degrees to 65 degrees, starting in some days as early as 6 pm in the evening, to the next morning up to 9 am. During this same month of March 2024, it was also windy almost every single day and night ranging from 6 miles per hour wind to up to 18 miles per hour wind. However, at least 90% of the time during the month of March 2024, the wind speed ranged from 10 to 20 miles per hour. This is despite the altitude of Dakar being only 39 feet (Source: see Methodology Section; also see Collins, 2011: p. 3650, pp. 3658-3659 ).

The information presented above shows that although a country or geographic entity would be categorized as the Tropics, it could have a higher altitude, which could contribute to a temperate climate. This is one of the major findings in this study—that most capital cities/regions in Africa have relatively very high altitudes. Other indicators or characteristics of temperate climates that are found in this study are as follows: rainfall, cold temperatures (e.g., below 70 degrees Fahrenheit), relatively low humidity, snowfall, wind, location by the coast, such as the North Atlantic Ocean, or rivers and lakes. It is noted that: “Temperate climates of the Earth are characterized by relatively moderate mean annual temperatures, with average monthly temperatures above 10˚C [50 degrees Fahrenheit] in their warmest months and above −3˚C [26.6 degrees] in their colder months” ( Pratolongo et al., 2019 ; also see Mohammed et al., 2021: p. 1030; Peel et al., 2007; “Temperate Climates,” 2024 ).

This study is very relevant at this moment in history because it is important to people residing in Africa as a source of useful climate data as increasing numbers of them are relocating to capital cities/regions, which are characterized as high-altitude areas, with temperate climates. This study is also useful to the increasing numbers of people in the African diaspora now relocating part-time or full-time to different parts of Africa. The people seeking temperate climates in Africa would use this study as a source of useful information as they make their decisions as to where to relocate on the continent, especially as these capital cities/regions have more amenities. Interestingly, this study shows that a high majority of the 83 million people who reside in all capital cities/regions in Africa as of December 31, 2023, are in higher elevation locations.

This study examines the prevalence of temperate climates in capital cities/regions in Africa. The study begins with an explanation of the methodology. Next, the findings of the study are presented. Next, a discussion section of the study is presented. This last section of the study will focus on the future relocation of people in Africa and members of the African diaspora relocating to Africa moving to capital cities/regions with temperate climates, and the economic, health, and social implications of such movements.

The data for the variables in this study are compiled from various entities or organizations. The reason is that there is no one organization that provides all the variables covered in this study. In addition, there continues to be limitations in the availability of climate and other relevant data for various countries in Africa. For example, in discussing the ongoing challenges of finding weather or climate data for African countries, Collins (2011) points to “some of the problems in trying to establish a weather station network that includes the technological and scientific underdevelopment of many African countries exacerbated by civil war, extensive poverty, and political instability. In addition… Africa has been underrepresented in international efforts to improve research capabilities, observing facilities, operational forecasting, and meteorological education” (p. 3650; also see Kaba, 2024a: pp. 58-59 ). Collins (2011) continues:

“…weather stations first emerged in the south of Africa and then along the coasts. These locations would therefore have the longest records…. the lack of temperature measurements in Africa (and other locations such as South America) in comparison to North America and Europe… the network of 1152 World Meteorological Organization (WMO) World Weather Watch (WWW) stations in Africa has an average density of weather stations of just one per 26,000 km² (this is 8 times lower than the minimum recommended level given by the WMO). The location of these weather stations is also unevenly distributed. Of the operational weather stations, some do not have long climate records and some are not publically available” (p. 3650; also see Kaba, 2024a: pp. 58-59 ).

The available data for the capital cities/regions in Africa are compiled from various sources. The population, elevation, average annual temperature (minimum, night and maximum, day, are converted from Celsius to Fahrenheit), number of annual sunshine hours, number of annual rainy days, precipitation, and humidity data, for the capital cities/regions are compiled from WorldData.info. The population data for the capital cities/regions are regularly updated, and the figures in this study are as of December 31, 2023. The “Over the course of the year, the temperature typically varies from” (low and high), and temperature “is rarely below… or above” data for the capital cities/regions are compiled from Weather Spark (as of December 31, 2023), which “offers detailed reports of the typical weather for 145,449 locations worldwide.” ( https://weatherspark.com/about ). The elevation (sea level) for the capital cities/regions are as of March 18, 2024, and are from Weatherspark.com. The elevation figures are converted from feet to meters.

The weather data for Dakar, Senegal, presented above for the entire month of March 2024 are compiled from the website of the Weather Channel in the United States ( https://weather.com/weather/tenday/l/4cff97cd159bc9f2254e835e4582419edaaa2ad94879beaa19efd8fde9043800 ). I recorded the Weather Channel’s daily (for at least 42 consecutive hours) and 10-day (ten consecutive days) weather forecast for Dakar, Senegal, every single day from February 28, 2024, to April 1, 2024 (apart from March 4, 9, 15, 18, and 27). However, as noted above, every hour and day in the month of March 2024, were captured. Also note that a recording was conducted on the day before and after each of the five days listed above that I did not record.

The findings of this study illustrate that the continent of Africa has a lot more capital cities/regions with cool or temperate climates than one would expect given the perception of Africa as a whole, as a very hot continent. It is a fact that the period from 10 am to 5 pm during the day most of the time, the temperature in most African nations would be relatively high. However, the data show that for many months in the year, a very high number of capital cities/regions across Africa experience temperate climates. Even in some countries where the temperature can go up to or above 100 degrees, they tend to experience low relative humidity.

The statistics in this study present numerous interrelated findings illustrating that many capital cities/regions across Africa experience temperate climates for significant periods during the year. These geographic locations have two or more of the indicators or characteristics of temperate climates.

Rainfall helps to reduce excessive heat and reduce high temperatures. As Tables A1-A6 illustrate, of the 39 capital cities/regions with available annual rainfall data, 8 (20.5%) have 100 days or more of annual rainfall, and 27 (69.2%) have 50 days or more of annual rainfall. Of 34 capital cities/regions with available annual precipitation data, 15 (44.1%) have figures of 1000 or more, ranging from 1004 to 2876. These areas across Africa with significant annual rainfall benefit from the rain through agriculture or the growing of crops for their consumption. It is noted that: “The amount of rain a region gets in the tropics directly affects which plant and animal species live there” (“Tropics,” 2024) . By 2023, Africa’s total population was estimated at 1.448 billion ( Kaba, 2024b: p. 72 ; also see Kaba, 2020 ). The African Union, which is now a member of the G20, and gradually increasing its ability to protect and represent the interests of the nations of Africa, should take advantage of the regular rainfall in these capital cities/regions to increase agricultural production and storage of clean fresh water from these rainfalls (Kaba, 2006a, 2014, 2016a, 2024ab; Sackeyfio & Kaba, 2022) . Pertaining to West Africa and its abundance of fresh water due to steady annual rainfall as illustrated in this study, it is quoted in Kaba (2024b) that “West African regions where water is plentiful…” (p. 72).

The statistics on the maximum (day) annual temperature for 40 capital cities/regions in Africa show that 17 (42.5%) have very pleasant temperatures ranging from 73.04 degrees in Rabat, Morocco to 83.12 degrees in Maputo, Mozambique; and 9 (22%) have temperatures in the 70s, ranging from 73.04 degrees in Rabat, Morocco to 78.8 degrees in Harare, Zimbabwe. For the minimum (night) annual temperature, 21 (52.5% out of 40) capital cities/regions have temperatures ranging from 51.6 degrees in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, to 69.62 degrees each in Bamako, Mali, and Banjul, Gambia; and 10 (25%) had temperatures in the 50s, ranging from 51.6 degrees in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, to 59.18 degrees in Tunis, Tunisia.

According to Wu et al. (2023) : “Over the past 100 years, the global average temperature has risen by 0.3˚C - 0.6˚C and will be 1.8˚C - 4.0˚C higher than that of the past century by the end of the twenty-first century. Global warming has accelerated the hydrological cycle and poses a potential threat to the survival and development of terrestrial ecosystems and human beings (pp. 1-2). Rahimi et al. (2020) claim that: “Climate change is happening and affects all aspects of agricultural systems and consequently food security in the future… This is especially true in West Africa (WA), a region which is highly vulnerable to climate change due to low adaptive capacity… the average temperature in this region for the year 2100 is expected to increase by 2˚C to 6˚C… in the future, most human population in the Sahel and the Western Sahara Desert would be at risk of experiencing heat stress conditions” (p. 666). Marx et al. (2021) claim that: “… the Arabic-speaking desert countries of the Gulf Region in the Middle East and the French-speaking parts of Africa are expected to suffer from heat waves beyond the limit of human survival” (pp. 793-794). According to Kompas et al. (2018) : “Since 1850, the Earth’s surface has become successively warmer and especially so over the past three decades. From 1880 to 2012, global average temperature (calculated with a linear trend for combined land and ocean surface temperature) shows a warming of 0.85 [0.65 - 1.06]˚C…. Emissions grew more quickly between 2000 and 2010, and carbon dioxide (CO₂) levels have increased by almost 50% since 1990” (p. 1154).

For the humidity data, it is noted that a humidity figure of 60% or less is bearable. However, a humidity figure of over 60% can become unbearable (Kaba, 2024a: p. 64) . For example, of 32 capital cities/regions with available annual humidity data, 9 (28.1%) have figures ranging from 29% to 59 percent. According to Willett (2020) , “In the simplest terms, humidity is a measure of how much water there is suspended in the air.” It is reported that:

“Relative humidity [RH] could be 100% on a day when the temperature is at 86˚F (30˚C) and also on a day with 14˚F (−10˚C). But the reality is that no matter what the RH is at such a low temperature, it’s doubtful that you’ll be sweating and the air will feel muggy. However, if the temperature is 86ºF (30˚C) and the RH is at 60%, it will likely feel humid when the dew point sits at 70˚F (21˚C)… indoor relative humidity (RH) should be kept below 60%—ideally between 30% and 50%” ( Navarro, 2023 ; also see Ashton, 2023; Oluwole, 2023; Kaba, 2024a: p. 64 ).

The data for the capital cities/regions show that the people in charge of selecting them in various countries throughout history tend to select higher elevation areas or regions from sea level for their seat of national government. For example, the data show that 16 (27.5%) of the 58 capital cities/regions in Africa have elevation levels of 1000 meters or higher, ranging from 1011 meters (Gaborone, Botswana) to 2405 meters (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia). There are 13 (22.4%) capital cities/regions with elevation levels ranging from 200 meters to less than 800 meters, from 206 meters (Niamey, Niger) to 726 meters (Yaoundé, Cameroon) ( Tables A1-A6 ).

The data above illustrating that many capital cities/regions in Africa have relatively high elevation levels is very important because these are the areas across the continent where people in the continent are moving to because they provide more services, employment, or modern amenities. As this study illustrates, as of December 31, 2023, there were 83 million people residing in capital cities/regions in Africa. Another interesting phenomenon that has emerged in the last decade is that significant numbers of people of Black African descent in the United States who are relocating to Africa partially, permanently or visiting just for a short period. Most of these diaspora Africans are choosing to reside in these capital cities/regions. Some of the reasons for relocating from the United States and Canada include to be in societies with Black majorities, re (connect) with their African heritage, exclusion from national leadership positions, escaping persistent racism, more opportunities for marriage, economic opportunities, etc. (Kaba, 2007a, 2010a, 2011a, 2011b, 2011c, 2012a, 2012b) .

There are only 7 (12.1% out of 58) capital cities/regions in Africa with high average annual temperature of 100 degrees or more: Djibouti City, Djibouti, Khartoum, Sudan, N’djamena, Chad, and Niamey, Niger (each 106 degrees), Bamako Mali and Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso (each 103 degrees), and Juba, South Sudan (102 degrees).

There are 15 (25.9%) capital cities/regions in Africa with temperatures ranging from rarely above 100 degrees (Abuja, Nigeria and Bangui, Central African Republic) to 110 degrees (Djibouti City, Djibouti, N’Djamena, Chad, Khartoum, Sudan, and Niamey, Niger).

There are 10 (17.2%) of the 58 capital cities/regions in Africa where the temperature rarely goes below 70 degrees, ranging from 70 degrees each in Malabo, Equatorial Guinea, Porto-Novo, Benin, and Monrovia, Liberia), to 75 degrees in São Tomé, Sao Tome & Principe.

There are 17 (29.3%) of the 58 capital cities/regions in Africa where the temperature rarely goes below the 20s, 30s, and 40s, from 24 degrees in Maseru, Lesotho (the only one in the 20s), to 47 degrees in Lilongwe, Malawi, including 5 capital cities/regions in Northern Africa: Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia, with 3 in the 40s and 1 at 35 degrees; the remaining 4 capital cities/regions are in Southern Africa, Mbabane, Eswatini, Gaborone, Botswana, Pretoria, South Africa, and Windhoek, Namibia, all in the 30s ( Tables A1-A6 ). Kaba’s (2024a) study on the climate of African countries finds that:

“Of the 40 countries/entities, 22 (55%) have coldest day temperatures in the 30s or lower, ranging from −10.48 degrees (Ranohira weather station, Madagascar in July 2017), to 37.22 degrees (Accra weather station, Ghana in January 2020), representing all five regions of Africa. There are 15 (37.5%) countries in Africa with coldest day temperatures of 32 degrees or less, ranging from −10.48 degrees (Ranohira weather station, Madagascar in July 2017), to 32.18 degrees (Dedougou weather station, Burkina Faso in July 2008), representing all five regions of Africa. For the coldest year data in African nations, 2019 appeared 6 times; 2005 appeared 5 times; and 2010, 2013, and 2015 each appeared 3 times. It is useful to note that the coldest day temperature (for example 32 degrees or less) happened for most of these nations with relatively high elevation areas: Ranohira, Madagascar, 2372 ft; Jimma, Ethiopia, 5640 ft; Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, 4423 ft: Dodoma, Tanzania, 3691 ft; Mecheria, Algeria, 3642 ft; Siwa, Egypt, −49 ft; Gafsa, Tunisia, 968 ft; Pandamatenga, Botswana, 3517 ft; Grootfontein, Namibia, 4724 ft; Bloemfontein, South Africa, 4580 ft; Dédougou, Burkina Faso, 991 ft; and Bilma, Niger, 1168 ft… The figure for Gariat El Sharghia, Libya, is 497 meters/1631 ft” (pp. 66-67).

The annual sunshine hours data, available for 35 capital cities/regions in Africa, show that they are endowed with a lot of sunshine, which many now utilized for solar energy as its use continues to increase across the continent. For example, of the 35 capital cities/regions with available annual sunshine hours data, only 5 (14.3%) are below 2000 hours, ranging from 1168 hours (Luanda, Angola), to 1898 hours each (in Brazzaville, the Republic of Congo and Kinshasa, the Democratic Republic of Congo). There are 10 (28.6%) capital cities/regions with annual sunshine hours of 3000 or more, ranging from 3066 hours each (Niamey, Niger, and Pretoria, South Africa), to 3577 hours (Khartoum, Sudan). For comparative purposes the figures for the following capital cities/regions across the world are as follows: London, England, United Kingdom: 1533 hours, Paris, France, 1862 hours, Berlin, Germany, 1789 hours, Washington, D.C., USA, 2592 hours, Ontario, Canada, 2263 hours, Beijing, China, 2373 hours, and New Delhi, India, 2555 hours ( https://www.worlddata.info/ ).

The African Union-United States partnership, which continues to progress, with periods of setbacks (Kaba, 2004, 2006b, 2009a, 2019; M’Cormack-Hale & Kaba, 2015) should work together to properly utilize the various professional expertise (such as in agriculture, industry, commerce, K-12 education, health, and higher education) and wealth of these people of Black African descent (who are among the most educated people in the world) returning to Africa. As the Black population in the United States and Africans in Africa continue to earn more formal education, they continue to realize that each group’s problems are the problems of the other (Kaba, 2007b, 2009b, 2010b, 2010c, 2011d, 2011e, 2013a, 2013b, 2015, 2016b, 2017, 2024b; Kaba & Ward, 2009; Mazrui & Kaba, 2016; Kaba & Kaba, 2020) .

The African Union and the United States federal government should create a system whereby Black people in the United States relocating to Africa can move their wealth or resources from the United States to Africa without difficulty. Furthermore, the United States federal government should partner with recognized or approved hospitals or medical centers across Africa to provide Medicare services to those Black people aged 65 and over relocating to Africa. The costs of such medical services could be less to the United States federal government.

Finally, by 2020, Christians have become the majority in Africa, and most of the Black people relocating from the United States to Africa are Christians. It is important for the African Union to actively make efforts for interreligious dialogues. For example, in a study examining the numbers of Christians and Muslims in Africa, Kaba (2022) finds that in 2020, of the 1.282 billion people in Africa, Christians accounted for 657.3 million (51.3%), Muslims accounted for 553 million (43.1%), and adherents of Traditional African Religions accounted for 34.5 million (2.7%) (p. 29). Kaba (2022) : “… recommended that Christians and Muslims should socialize with each other and attend each other’s ceremonies. They should also work together along with the African Union to improve the lives of all the people on the continent” (p. 18; also see Kaba, 2009c ).

This paper began by pointing out that a capital city can be located on a higher latitude but could have characteristics of a city on a lower latitude, while a capital city on a lower latitude can have characteristics of a city on a higher latitude. The 58 capital cities/regions in Africa have a total population of 83.4 million people as of December 31, 2023, with Middle Africa accounting for 30.8%; Eastern Africa, 27.4%: Western Africa, 20.8%; Northern Africa, 18.7%; and Southern Africa, 2.2%. Of Africa’s total area of 30.6 million sq km, Northern Africa accounted for 26%; Eastern Africa, 23.1%; Middle Africa, 21.8%; Western Africa, 20.3%; and Southern Africa, 8.8%.

All capital cities/regions have at least two indicators or characteristics of temperate climates. For example, capital cities/regions in Africa have relatively high elevation levels. Sixteen (27.6%) of the 58 capital cities/regions in Africa have elevation levels of 1000 meters or higher, and 13 (22.4%) have elevation levels ranging from 200 meters to less than 800 meters.

There are only 7 (12.1%) capital cities/regions in Africa with a high average annual temperature of 100 degrees or more. In 17 (29.3%) of the 58 capital cities/regions in Africa, the temperature rarely goes below the 20s, 30s, and 40s. Of the 36 capital cities/regions in Africa with available annual sunshine hours data, only 5 (13.9%) are below 2000 hours, and 10 (27.8%) with annual sunshine of 3000 hours or more.

The study recommends that the African union lead the way to prepare for the movement of people in Africa and the African diaspora from the United States to capital cities/regions in Africa, as they are among the areas with temperate climates on the continent and modern amenities. The study also recommends that the African Union must work together with the United States to ease the transition process for people in the African diaspora returning to Africa in utilizing their expertise and wealth for Africa’s development. Finally, the study also recommends that both the African Union and the United States government work together to promote interreligious dialogue in Africa, especially since Christians are now the majority in Africa and most of the Black people relocating to the continent from the United States are also Christians.

Source: See methodology section.

Source: see methodology section.

Source: see methodology section.

Source: see methodology section.

Source: see methodology section.

Source: see methodology section.

Geographic Breakdowns of the Five Regions of Africa (n = 58)

Eastern Africa (n = 20): Burundi, Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mayotte, Mozambique, Reunion, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somalia, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

Middle Africa (n = 9): Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Sao Tome & Principe.

Northern Africa (n = 7): Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia, and Western Sahara.

Southern Africa (n = 5): Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa, and Swaziland.

Western Africa (n = 17): Benin, Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde, Cote d’Ivoire, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo, and Saint Helena.

Source: “Composition of macro geographical (continental) regions, geographical sub-regions, and selected economic and other groupings” Retrieved on January 29, 2019 from: https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/ .