To grow and achieve our fullest potential in life, it is essential to be well-nourished, which begins with consuming hygienic and safe food—a fundamental safeguard against disease [1] . Food hygiene is a primary determinant of human health. It encompasses not only the proper handling of many varieties of foodstuff and beverages but also the utensils and equipment used in their preparation, service and consumption. Additionally, it includes the care and treatment of animals to prevent the contamination of food products originating from animal hosts [2] .

Food should be nourishing and attractive, visibly clean and free from harmful substances. These include chemicals that can be harmless in small amounts but become dangerous in large amount. They can enter the food accidentally during preparation, or they may accumulate in the food during poor or excessively long storage in for example, metal containers. Micro-organisms may be introduced directly from infected animals, during food preparation, from workers, other foods or the environment. Additionally, toxins may be produced by the growth of bacteria and/or mold.

Cooked food vending in Sierra Leone are categorised by the co-existence of formal and informal establishment. Formal establishment such as restaurantshave proper infrastructure, are registered as a business entity, and pay a monthly tax to the National Revenue Authority. In contrast, informal food vendors are unlicensed outlets such as ‘cookribaffa’, table-tops selling beans salad, ‘fry-fry’, tea and egg, ‘ebeh/foofoo’, hot-pap or lafidi. Many people find it cheaper to buy food from ‘cookri’ than from restaurants or to make food at home [3] .

Informal cooked food vendors (‘cookri’ shops) play an important role in providing affordable cooked food to low-income people [4] . However, they generally do not have clean spaces to sell food, and are notorious for poor sanitation practices. Handwashing, as well as the cleaning of utensils, and dishes is often done in buckets or bowls using the same water [5] . Some vendors sell their food near a dump site or gutter where broken pipes from people’s homes lead to open sewers run alongside water pipes [6] . Food practice is categorized ‘good’ based on adequately protected from flies, personal cleanliness, clean kitchen and designated eating areas, work wear and protective clothing, quality of food, personal behavior and possible contamination [7] .

The major challenge with informal food vendors is the lack of infrastructure and resources for proper food storage and handling. Limited access to electricity, inadequate kitchen space, insufficient water and sanitation facilities make it difficult for vendors to maintain the freshness and safety of their products [8] . Without proper infrastructure, the risk of contamination and spoilage increases, posing a direct threat to the health of the consumers [9] .

The Food and Agriculture Organization highlights that financial constraints as a major barrier for small businesses in adhering to effective food safety and hygiene measures [10] . As a result, food vendors may resort to cost-cutting measures that compromise safety standards, putting consumers at risk of foodborne illnesses. Additionally, there is a lack of a regulatory framework and surveillance systems for food safety in Sierra Leone. The United Nations Development Programme emphasizes the importance of effective regulatory systems in ensuring food safety [11] . In the absence of such systems, vendors may not adhere to necessary hygiene practices, leading to the sale of unsafe foods [12] .

There is a growing awareness worldwide of the need to strengthen national food safety systems to improve protection of consumers’ health and to gain trust and confidence thereby facilitate food trade [13] . Stakeholders are demanding that governments provide stronger leadership, adequate resources at appropriate levels to ensure food safety across the entire food and feed chain [2] .

Sufficient, safe and nutritious foods are clearly identified as relevant to all Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), highlighting the interdependence between health, well-being, nutrition, food safety, and food security. It imperative to integrate food safety into realisation of key SDGs, notably SDG 2 (Zero hunger), SDG 3 (Good health and well-being), and SDG 8 (Decent work and economic growth). Moreover, food safety must also be integrated in pursuit of SDG 1 (No poverty), SDG 12 (Responsible consumption and production patterns), and SDG 17 (Partnerships for the goals). The integral role of food safety is a critical factor in achieving these SDG, particularly for poor consumers in low-and middle-income countries [14] . This underscores the necessity multisectoral approach to food safety.

The study aims to assess food hygiene practices among formal and informal food vendors in Western Area with the goal of informing policymaking frameworks.

1) What do food vendors know about food safety and hygiene?

2) What preventive measures are taken to reduce cross-contamination from food?

3) How many food vendors comply with the food and feed safety standards?

4) What are the food quality control and monitoring procedures by authorities?

This was a descriptive study that used mixed method approach. The researchers performed in-depth interviews with both formal and informal food vendors allowing flexibility for respondents to explain what they understand about food safety, hygiene, and their practices and non-participant observation of the vendor site and their practices

Participants were recruited using the snowball sampling approach, including cookri shops (informal vendor), restaurants (formal vendors), “table top shops” and door-to-door sales that are within and around main junctions and strategic areas in the capital Freetown and surrounding Western Areas.

A total of 473 food vendors participated in the study: 366 from WAU and 107 from WAR. The majority of participants were female (371, 78.4%), with 314 (66.4%) aged between 25-45 years and over half had secondary level education or higher (51.3%). Most had been food vendors for 3-5 years 302 (63.8%). The majority operated informally, without infrastructure, registration, taxes/market fees based on their location (65.8% and 64.9% respectively) ( Table 1 ). Most vendors (93%) were not monitored for food safety compliance although, 33 large restaurants (7%) reported visit from the Consumer Protection Agency to check the expiry dates of tin foods. Some of the unregistered vendors pay a daily tax of NL2 (two new Leones) which when accrued for the month is equivalent to the monthly tax paid by the registered food vendors.

This study revealed that a significant proportion 76% of food vendors have poor food safety and hygiene practices. This result is consistent with findings from Nigeria (76%) [17] and in Bole sub-city of Addis Ababa (72%) [18] . Food vendors were very causal and/or lethargic about proper hygiene practices such as covering food, using clean utensils, maintaining clean food handling environment and proper disposal of waste. They see flies and uncomfortable smell as normal in their business. We observed that, there are many cookri corners closer to the street mostly beside a gutter with heaped-up of rubbish selling cheap unhygienic, uncooked, and substandard food. The findings underscore the urgent need for comprehensive food safety education for vendors, awareness campaigns, and food safety regulations with surveillance.

Personal hygiene, both of the food handlers and the consumers, was identified as a factor contributing to unsafe food. It was clear among vendors failing to wash hands, touching food with unclean hands, scratching their head, sneezing closer to the food and sweat running off their body whilst preparing or serving or handling food. Some formal establishment have insufficient staffing where the same staff will be in the kitchen and at the same time serving customers with running nose due to the heat from the kitchen, not wearing apron and serving with their bare hands. The appearance and hygiene practices of the seller were highlighted by participants as crucial factors. Sellers who appeared clean, neat, and well-groomed were more likely to attract clients. Hygiene practices, both personal and in the preparation of food, were seen as indicators of the seller’s commitment to food safety.

The findings reflect a range of experiences and access levels to water supply within the community. Water availability, access, and safety are some of the key challenges encountered by food vendors and within the communities. While a significant portion of participants had access to water supply, the responses also highlighted challenges such as payment for water and variability in availability. The reliance on diverse water sources and facilities demonstrates the complex nature of water access in the context of food preparation and other daily activities. Some vendors use fetch water from unprotected sources like shallow wells, streams or river for cooking and washing of dishes, and some costumers even drink this water if they cannot afford to buy sachets water. Contaminated water used in cooking and the overall cleaning of utensils were noted as contributing factors to food contamination. These findings emphasize the need for local construction of water-wells and erection of water tanks for availability of clean water that contribute significantly to food safety.

The findings suggest a diverse range of experiences and perspectives regarding access to toilet facilities in the food establishment centres. While a significant proportion of respondents do have access to toilet facilities, there are concerns about payment, condition, and management. Furthermore, a notable portion of establishment do not have access to these facilities, potentially indicating a gap in sanitation infrastructure. Adequate and well-maintained toilet facilities are essential components of maintaining a clean and safe food space for both traders and consumers.

The study findings unveiled diverse practices and perspectives regarding the provision of handwashing facilities for consumers within the ‘food environment’. It was evident that a portion of establishments have handwashing facilities (with soap and water) (47%) available for their customers, which reflects an essential effort to promote hygiene and food safety. On the other hand, a considerable proportion of establishments reported the absence of handwashing facilities for consumers, citing reasons such as cost constraints or the perception that customers used spoon to eat. This suggests a potential gap in promoting proper hygiene practices, raising concerns about the potential spread of contaminants. These findings underscore the need for increased awareness and implementation of handwashing facilities in the food environment to uphold food safety and public health standards. The existence of varying practices and attitudes highlights the complexity of addressing this issue, but it also presents an opportunity for interventions and education that prioritize hygiene and sanitation.

It is apparent that many food vendors do know some of the essentials regarding food safety and hygiene. However, their practices were ‘poor’ and surveillance is very weak. It is vital that food vendors are routinely monitored not only to maintain but to improve food safety management. Competent authorities should develop monitoring tools that align with the food safety handbook to monitor food operator’s compliance to food regulations.

The authors would like to thank all the business operators and their staff interviewed for their collaboration during the field survey. Our appreciation to the students of Milton Margai Technical University who participated as field workers for their cooperation and patience during the fieldwork.

Throughout the research process, stringent data security measures are upheld, including the secure storage of photos, audio recording and any associated notes. The Centre for Development and Food Safety (SL) Limited, archives all responses on site, which will not be shared to maintain confidentiality.

Funding for this study was made possible by the generous support from the Centre for Development and Food Safety (SL) Limited, Board of Directors and the Council of Technical Advisors. The funder had no role in the design, data collection, and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Ethical clearance was obtained from the Sierra Leone Ethics and Scientific Review Committee at the Ministry of Health and Sanitation. The optional nature of the study (that participants could refuse to answer questions if they were uncomfortable, that from the study at any time in which case none of their data would be used) was explained verbally. All the respondents granted informed written consent to participate and all data was anonymized. Confidentiality was assured.

HT designed and conducted the study. HT, and 40 students from MMTU participated in the fieldwork and compiled the data. HT and PJK analysed and interpreted the data. PJK and HT drafted, reviewed and revised the manuscript. Both authors have read and approved the final manuscript.