Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies are pivotal in mitigating the impact of human-generated carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions on climate change. These technologies aim to capture CO₂ emissions at the source and prevent their release into the atmosphere, subsequently storing the captured CO₂ in geological formations. CCS encompasses various methods, each with distinct advantages and challenges.

Smith et al. [8] underscored the importance of CCS in achieving global emission reduction targets. They emphasized the necessity for scalable and cost-effective CCS technologies to address climate change concerns. The study argued that without widespread adoption of CCS, meeting ambitious emission reduction goals would be challenging.

Post-combustion capture, a widely used CCS method, involves extracting CO₂ from flue gases after combustion. Wang and Rubin [9] note its advantages, including the retrofit capability for existing power plants. However, challenges such as energy-intensive separation processes and the requirement for large capture facilities remain.

Pre-combustion capture entails CO₂ separation from the fuel before combustion, often utilized in integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plants. Li et al. [10] highlighted its potential for higher efficiency but noted complexities in gasification processes as challenges.

Oxy-fuel combustion, as reviewed by Herzog [11] , entails burning fossil fuels in an oxygen and recirculated flue gas mixture, yielding a high CO₂ concentration flue gas stream, simplifying capture. Nonetheless, concerns about the energy penalty from oxygen production impact overall combustion efficiency.

Regarding storage options, Bergman and Winter [12] delineate several choices, each with its risks and benefits:

Deep saline aquifers: underground stores with extensive storage potential.

Depleted oil and gas fields: Known and monitored storage sites.

Enhanced oil recovery sites: Smaller-capacity stores improving oil extraction economics.

Enhanced coal bed methane recovery: Utilizing CO₂ to enhance methane release.

CO₂ mineralization: research focuses on chemically binding CO₂ to stable minerals.

Various pilot plants and large-scale demonstrators worldwide are testing these storage methods, with notable projects like the Gorgon CO₂ Injection Project in Australia, storing millions of tonnes of CO₂ annually in deep saline formations, showcasing the viability of CCS technology.

CO₂ can be captured from significant emission sources, like power generation and industry. [7] mention its potential contribution to reducing transport emissions by facilitating the use of electricity and hydrogen produced by Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) facilities. The technology for separating CO₂ from other gases has been in industrial application for over 80 years, with numerous large-scale CCS projects operational globally, alongside several new ones under construction. Currently, there are approximately 15 ongoing or soon-to-be-finalized projects, with a combined CO₂ storage capacity exceeding 33 million tonnes annually, roughly equivalent to the emissions of over six million cars annually [13] .

The most established CO₂ capture method in Figure 1 shows a simplified diagram illustrating the three main approaches to carbon capture, the post-combustion separation involves extracting CO₂ from exhaust gases after combustion using chemicals. This technology offers the advantage of retrofitting existing emission sources [14] . Other capture methods include pre-combustion separation and combustion with pure oxygen (oxy-fuel).

Transporting CO₂ primarily occurs via pipelines, proven effective for distances up to 1000 - 1500 km. For longer distances, shipping may be more economical. The safety of CO₂ transport is comparable to that of hydrocarbons like natural gas and petroleum.

The final step in CCS involves securely storing captured CO₂ underground. Geological formations with a history of storing natural gas and CO₂ are considered suitable [15] . The IPCC suggests a technical potential of at least 2000 billion tonnes for storing CO₂ in various geological formations.

CO₂ capture has been practiced in industrial processes for decades, notably in urea and ammonia production, and for commercial uses like food-grade CO₂ in breweries. The capture process can be categorized based on when CO₂ is removed from the process.

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies have garnered significant attention as a promising strategy for mitigating CO₂ emissions and combating climate change. One of the primary methods involves capturing CO₂ emissions from industrial sources, such as power plants and cement factories before they are released into the atmosphere [16] . This captured CO₂ is then transported via pipelines or ships to suitable storage sites, where it is injected deep underground for long-term storage in geological formations such as depleted oil and gas reservoirs, saline aquifers, or deep coal seams [17] .

In recent years, advancements in CCS technologies have focused on improving the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of CO₂ capture processes. Various capture techniques, including pre-combustion capture, post-combustion capture, and oxy-fuel combustion, have been developed and optimized to reduce energy penalties and lower capture costs [18] . Additionally, research efforts have been directed towards developing novel materials and solvents for more efficient CO₂ capture, as well as exploring alternative capture technologies such as membrane separation and chemical looping [19] .

Once CO₂ is captured, the next step is to transport it to suitable storage sites. This process requires the development of extensive transportation infrastructure, including pipelines and ships, to safely and efficiently transport large volumes of CO₂ over long distances [4] . Technological innovations in pipeline design, monitoring, and maintenance are crucial for ensuring the integrity and safety of CO₂ transportation networks, while advancements in ship-based transport technologies can facilitate the global trade of captured CO₂ for storage or utilization purposes [20] .

In terms of storage, geological formations offer the most promising option for long-term CO₂ storage due to their large storage capacity and geological stability. However, challenges remain in accurately characterizing and monitoring storage reservoirs to ensure the safe and permanent containment of injected CO₂ [6] . Advanced geophysical and geochemical monitoring techniques, such as seismic imaging, gravity surveys, and geochemical tracers, are essential for assessing reservoir integrity, detecting potential leakage pathways, and monitoring CO₂ migration over time [21] .

Moreover, ongoing research is exploring alternative storage options such as CO₂ mineralization, where CO₂ is chemically converted into stable carbonate minerals for long-term storage [22] . This process not only provides a secure and permanent storage solution but also offers the potential for carbon-negative emissions by permanently removing CO₂ from the atmosphere [8] . However, significant research is still needed to scale up and optimize CO₂ mineralization processes for large-scale deployment [23] .

Overall, the development and deployment of CCS technologies are essential for achieving global climate targets and transitioning to a low-carbon economy. Continued research and innovation in CO₂ capture, transportation, and storage technologies are necessary to overcome technical, economic, and regulatory challenges and realize the full potential of CCS as a climate mitigation strategy [24] .

Today, the predominant method for capturing CO₂ from flue gases is through the use of amines. This technology, which has been in use for several decades, is employed in both flue gas and natural gas processing. Various companies such as Fluor Daniel, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Aker Clean Carbon, and CanSolv offer full-scale, amine-based post-combustion separation equipment. The first gas power plant utilizing this technology was established in Lubbock, Texas, in 1980. Post-combustion separation stands out as the most versatile method, adaptable to a range of emitters including power plants and industrial facilities. It can also be retrofitted onto existing emission sources, although it necessitates available space near the emission point [25] .

The composition of flue gas varies depending on the emission source. For instance, conventional gas power plant emissions contain approximately 3 - 4 percent CO₂, while coal power plants emit around 12 - 14 percent, and the cement industry is approximately 20 percent. These differences in composition, along with varying CO₂ concentrations and flue gas pressures, influence the choice of chemicals for separation [26] . The degree of CO₂ separation achievable is primarily determined by cost considerations. While it is feasible to separate nearly all CO₂ from a flue stream, achieving extremely high capture rates becomes increasingly energy-intensive and expensive. Typically, CO₂ recoveries from flue gas using amines hover around 85 percent, although higher rates are attainable.

In pre-combustion capture, CO₂ is separated before combustion occurs, with the fuel transformed into a mixture of hydrogen and CO₂ for relatively straightforward separation. This approach applies to both coal and gas-powered plants, albeit with variations in the gasification process. The process involves mixing fuel, water vapor, and air in a reactor for chemical reforming into carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H₂) at high temperatures and pressures, requiring energy input. The resulting synthesis gas undergoes further conversion to produce additional hydrogen in a water shift reactor before CO₂ removal via amine absorption. The produced hydrogen fuels a gas turbine, with combustion emitting no CO₂ [27] .

In terms of CO₂ capture from industrial sites, a significant portion of global emissions originates from industries such as cement, ammonia, urea, pulp, and petrochemicals. Capture technologies similar to those used in power plants can be applied in industrial settings. Notably, iron and steel manufacturing currently accounts for the largest proportion of industrial CO₂ emissions, followed by cement and chemical production. Industrial applications of CCS are crucial for accumulating experience in capture techniques, transport infrastructure, storage site suitability, and CO₂ behavior, which can then be applied to larger-scale deployments in various sectors [28] .

CO₂ finds numerous industrial uses, including in the food and chemical industries, enhanced oil recovery (EOR), and various manufacturing processes. Despite these applications, most current industrial uses do not lead to CO₂ emissions reduction as the captured CO₂ is typically released back into the atmosphere within days, weeks, or months. However, the market for industrial CO₂ usage continues to grow, particularly in Europe, with applications ranging from beverage production to food preservation and chemical manufacturing [29] .

The advantages of CCS technologies are manifold, offering the potential for significant emission reductions, particularly in industries with limited decarbonization alternatives. CCS also enables the continued utilization of existing infrastructure, averting stranded assets and facilitating a smoother transition to a low-carbon future. However, CCS faces notable challenges including economic feasibility, regulatory uncertainties, and public acceptance issues, all of which must be addressed for widespread adoption.

[30] Post-combustion capture technology plays a crucial role in reducing carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from existing fossil fuel power plants. This method involves capturing CO₂ from the flue gas produced during combustion processes, making it a promising approach for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions [31] . One of the primary advantages of post-combustion capture is its retrofit potential, allowing it to be integrated into existing infrastructure without requiring significant modifications to power plants [32] . However, the implementation of post-combustion capture faces several challenges, including energy consumption and cost implications [33] . The energy-intensive nature of CO₂ capture processes can lead to a decrease in the overall efficiency of power plants, impacting their economic viability [34] .

[31] Research efforts are focused on developing more energy-efficient and cost-effective post-combustion capture technologies to address these challenges [35] . Novel solvent systems and advanced separation techniques are being investigated to improve CO₂ capture efficiency while minimizing energy requirements [36] . Additionally, the exploration of alternative approaches such as membrane-based separation processes and adsorption technologies shows promise in reducing both energy consumption and capital costs associated with CO₂ capture [37] .

[32] Beyond technological advancements, the integration of post-combustion capture with carbon capture and utilization (CCU) strategies offers potential synergies [38] . By converting captured CO₂ into valuable products such as chemicals, fuels, or building materials, CCU not only helps offset the costs of capture but also contributes to the circular economy [39] . Furthermore, the utilization of CO₂ in industrial processes or for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) presents opportunities to create additional revenue streams [40] .

[33] Despite these potential benefits, the widespread deployment of post-combustion capture still requires further research and development to address remaining challenges [41] . This includes optimizing capture processes for different types of flue gas compositions and scaling up technologies to meet the demands of large-scale power plants [42] . Moreover, regulatory frameworks and financial incentives are essential to incentivize investment in post-combustion capture infrastructure [43] .

[34] Collaboration between industry, academia, and government agencies is essential to drive innovation and facilitate the deployment of post-combustion capture technologies [44] . Knowledge sharing, joint research initiatives, and pilot-scale demonstrations can accelerate progress toward achieving cost-effective and sustainable CO₂ emissions reductions from existing fossil fuel power plants [45] . Ultimately, the successful implementation of post-combustion capture will play a vital role in transitioning to a low-carbon energy future [46] .

Aquifer geological storage is a method employed in carbon capture and storage (CCS), involving the injection of carbon dioxide (CO₂) into deep underground porous rock formations, particularly saline aquifers. These aquifers, containing brackish or saline water, are typically situated at depths well below freshwater aquifers. Due to their extensive storage capacities, global distribution, and secure containment capabilities, saline aquifers offer significant potential for CO₂ storage [47] .

The process commences with the capture of CO₂ emissions from industrial sources like power plants or industrial facilities. Subsequently, the captured CO₂ is compressed and transported to the designated storage site. Injection wells are then drilled into the targeted saline aquifer, and the CO₂ is injected at high pressure into the porous rock. As CO₂ is denser than the brine present in the aquifer, it tends to sink and spread laterally within the porous spaces. Over time, mechanisms such as mineralization contribute to securely storing the CO₂ underground [47] .

Understanding the geological characteristics of aquifers is paramount for the success of such projects. Porosity, permeability, and caprock integrity are key factors influencing storage capacity and the ability of the aquifer to securely contain CO₂. Thorough site assessments, geophysical surveys, and modeling studies are essential to ensure the suitability and safety of the chosen aquifer for long-term CO₂ storage [48] .

Aquifer storage of CO₂ has emerged as a pivotal strategy in sustainable CCS solutions. Saline aquifers, characterized by porous rock formations, offer a promising medium for long-term storage due to their potential to securely sequester substantial volumes of CO₂. These formations, located at depths suitable for geological storage, are identified as key candidates for large-scale implementation of CO₂ storage strategies [49] .

Research emphasizes the critical role of geological characteristics in determining aquifer suitability for CO₂ storage. Recent advances underscore the importance of identifying formations with optimal permeability and porosity to facilitate efficient injection and storage of CO₂. Additionally, selecting aquifers with secure caprock formations is crucial for preventing potential leakage and ensuring long-term storage site integrity.

Environmental considerations are paramount in evaluating aquifer storage viability. Robust environmental impact assessments, as highlighted by the Environmental Impact Assessment Group, are imperative to ensure safety and sustainability. These assessments should encompass factors such as groundwater quality maintenance, seismic activity risks, and ecosystem integrity to comprehensively evaluate environmental implications [48] .

Geological storage in aquifers presents a promising avenue for carbon dioxide (CO₂) sequestration, yet it comes with its own set of challenges, particularly concerning geological complexity and site selection. The intricate interplay of factors such as porosity, permeability, and caprock integrity necessitates advanced geophysical surveys and 3D modeling for accurate characterization [40] . These methods are crucial for identifying suitable storage sites and understanding the potential risks associated with CO₂ injection. One primary concern is the possibility of CO₂ leakage, which underscores the importance of robust wellbore design and continuous monitoring throughout the storage process [41] . Addressing this risk requires a comprehensive approach that includes the implementation of advanced monitoring technologies to detect any potential leaks promptly [42] .

Furthermore, economic viability is a significant consideration in aquifer storage, given the high initial costs associated with drilling and infrastructure development. Potential solutions to mitigate these costs include advancements in drilling technologies and the exploration of cost-sharing mechanisms among stakeholders [43] . Such strategies could help alleviate the financial burden of aquifer storage projects and improve their long-term sustainability.

Future research in aquifer storage should focus on advancing monitoring technologies to enhance real-time data collection and improve detection capabilities [44] . Fiber-optic sensing and satellite imaging are promising avenues for achieving this goal, as they offer the potential for continuous monitoring over large areas [45] . Additionally, economic optimization remains a critical area for future studies, with a particular emphasis on refining cost-sharing mechanisms and exploring innovative financial models to make aquifer storage more economically feasible [46] .

While geological storage in aquifers holds promise as a viable option for CO₂ sequestration, it is essential to address the challenges associated with geological complexity, CO₂ leakage, and economic viability. By leveraging advanced technologies and collaborative approaches, researchers can overcome these hurdles and unlock the full potential of aquifer storage as a crucial component of global efforts to mitigate climate change [50] .

Sleipner Project (North Sea): The Sleipner Project, situated in the North Sea, serves as a noteworthy example of aquifer storage. CO₂ separated from natural gas is injected into a saline aquifer beneath the sea floor. Comprehensive studies, including seismic imaging and pressure measurements, demonstrate secure CO₂ storage, supporting aquifer storage feasibility.

Otway Project (Australia): The Otway Project in Australia provides insights into geomechanical and geochemical aspects of aquifer storage. CO₂ injection into a depleted gas reservoir within a saline aquifer is studied to understand interactions between injected CO₂ and host rock. Site-specific assessments are emphasized to predict stored CO₂ behavior over time.

Aquifer storage projects serve as pivotal case studies, offering insights into real-world applications and challenges. One such project, the Sleipner project in the North Sea, exemplifies successful CO₂ storage in saline aquifers. Despite initial concerns regarding geological complexity, extensive seismic surveys and reservoir modeling enabled precise characterization of the storage site, ensuring secure containment of injected CO₂ [40] . Similarly, the Otway Project in Australia underscores the importance of robust monitoring systems. [50] Advanced monitoring technologies, including downhole sensors and surface-based measurements, facilitated the detection of potential leakage pathways, enhancing overall project safety and efficiency [41] . Furthermore, the In Salah project in Algeria highlights the significance of international collaboration. Jointly led by multinational energy companies and research institutions, this project exemplifies how diverse expertise and resources can be pooled to address common challenges, paving the way for more effective carbon storage solutions on a global scale [42] . These case studies collectively demonstrate the multifaceted nature of aquifer storage projects, emphasizing the need for comprehensive approaches that integrate geological, technological, and collaborative strategies to ensure the success and sustainability of CO₂ storage initiatives.

Challenges and Opportunities Associated with Aquifer Storage: Aquifer storage projects face challenges, including CO₂ leakage potential, induced seismicity, and regulatory complexities. Understanding risks associated with CO₂ migration and addressing public concerns are crucial. However, with proper site selection, continuous monitoring, and risk management, aquifer storage can substantially contribute to CCS efforts. Globally distributed saline aquifers provide diverse regions with opportunities to implement this technology based on geological suitability.

Gas hydrates represent crystalline compounds comprising gas molecules, primarily methane, confined within a lattice of water molecules. These formations occur in conditions characterized by high pressure and low temperature, commonly observed in permafrost regions and deep-sea sediments. Gas hydrates have gained attention as a potential carbon dioxide (CO₂) storage medium due to their significant storage capacity and the possibility of solid CO₂ sequestration.

Gas hydrates form a stable, ice-like structure wherein gas molecules are trapped within the lattice. Methane hydrates, particularly abundant and well-studied, offer a unique means of storing substantial gas volumes compactly. The interest in gas hydrate storage for CO₂ stems from its potential for securely sequestering CO₂, thereby reducing its atmospheric concentration and addressing climate change concerns [50] .

Studies have delved into the feasibility of storing gases, including CO₂, within gas hydrates. Research conducted by Sum et al. [27] explored the viability of CO₂ storage in hydrate reservoirs, emphasizing their capacity for storing vast gas volumes within a relatively small hydrate volume. Utilizing numerical simulations, the study analyzed hydrate behavior under various injection scenarios, providing valuable insights into gas hydrate storage dynamics.

One of the challenges in gas hydrate storage involves maintaining stability during gas injection and storage processes. Efforts led by Mahabadi et al. [28] have focused on experimental and numerical investigations to comprehend gas hydrate behavior during injection and storage, contributing to the development of effective storage strategies.

Environmental considerations are paramount in gas hydrate storage projects. Safely storing CO₂ within hydrates necessitates addressing issues concerning hydrate destabilization and potential gas release. Environmental risk assessments, as discussed by Waite et al. [29] , offer a framework for evaluating the environmental consequences of gas hydrate storage, including impacts on local ecosystems and seafloor stability.

Technical challenges, such as hydrate formation kinetics, injectivity, and containment, also pose hurdles to gas hydrate storage projects. Research by Yang et al. [26] explores these challenges, highlighting the need for efficient injection strategies and methods to enhance hydrate formation while ensuring long-term containment and minimizing unintended hydrate dissociation risks.

The economic viability of gas hydrate storage is critical for practical implementation. Research by Boswell et al. [30] addresses economic considerations, including formation and storage costs alongside potential revenue streams. Understanding economic feasibility is essential in determining the competitiveness of gas hydrate storage compared to other carbon capture and storage methods [32] .

Regulatory frameworks and societal concerns must be navigated in gas hydrate storage projects. Research by Masui et al. [31] delves into regulatory and social aspects, emphasizing stakeholder engagement, regulatory frameworks, and risk communication. Successful projects require a transparent and inclusive approach to address concerns and garner public acceptance.

The term “gas hydrates” encompasses crystalline compounds consisting of water and various light molecules, including methane, ethane, propane, iso-butane, normal butane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. Additionally, polar components within a specific size range can form hydrates. Hydrate formation typically occurs when water molecules interact with these molecules at temperatures either above or below the freezing point of ice, coupled with relatively high pressure. The resulting cage-like structures stabilize the host molecules, forming stable hydrates under these conditions [48] .

Natural gas hydrates, also known as methane hydrates, form when water molecules and methane gas coexist under specific temperatures and pressures. Methane hydrate remains stable at temperatures slightly above or below 0˚C under high pressure, conditions prevalent in many ocean environments. The geothermal gradient plays a crucial role, in ensuring methane hydrate stability on continental shelves by causing temperatures at certain depths to exceed the equilibrium temperature at the in-situ pressure. Gas hydrates offer significant methane storage capacity, with approximately 180 standard cubic meters of methane gas stored in one cubic meter of typical hydrate [12] .

Natural gas, predominantly methane, serves as a favored fuel owing to its convenient handling, wide availability, and cost-effectiveness for heating and energy conversion. With a higher hydrogen-to-carbon ratio compared to other hydrocarbon fuels, methane generates less carbon dioxide during combustion. Its purity and ease of purification further position methane as an environmentally preferable option compared to oil and coal. This is underscored by its significantly lower carbon dioxide emissions compared to alcohol, liquid petroleum, and oil-based fuels [50] .

The abundant production of natural gas, especially methane, from conventional oil and gas reservoirs, along with its efficient distribution through pipelines and high energy content, holds substantial implications for driving the growth of gas-based energy economies. Exploration and development of gas hydrate reserves, potentially offering an almost limitless supply of methane, could potentially revolutionize the energy economy by reducing reliance on oil-based sources [1] .

Gas hydrates, initially discovered by Sir Humphrey Day in 1810, gained interest in the oil and gas industry in 1934 when the first pipeline blockage was observed due to their crystalline, non-flowing nature. Various experiments have been conducted to understand gas hydrate structures and properties:

Jin et al. utilized microfocus X-ray computed tomography (CT) to study natural gas sediments with and without gas hydrates. They analyzed the spatial distribution of gas, sand particles, liquid water, and solid hydrate phases, correlating absolute permeability with pore networks. Their findings emphasized the significance of horizontal continuous pore channels in determining absolute permeability [2] .

Minagawa et al. employed proton nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurements coupled with a permeability measurement system to characterize methane hydrate sediments based on pore size distribution and permeability. Their results highlighted a close agreement between permeability values obtained through different methods, elucidating the relationship between pore size distribution, porosity, and effective permeability [3] .

Santamarina et al. conducted experiments to determine the mechanical, thermal, electrical, and electromagnetic properties of hydrate-bearing soils using standardized geotechnical devices. By varying grain sizes and saturations, they provided insights into the behavior of synthetic hydrates under controlled conditions [4] .

Stoll and Bryan investigated the thermal conductivity and acoustic wave velocity of hydrates and hydrate-containing sediments. They observed that hydrate formation decreases thermal conductivity and concluded that sharp acoustic impedance contrasts at sediment boundaries could aid in locating hydrate deposits.

Pearson et al. predicted the physical properties of sediments containing hydrates to refine production models and develop exploration techniques. By establishing empirical relationships between composition and seismic velocity, resistivity, density, and heat capacity, they enhanced reservoir characterization [5] .

Winters et al. measured acoustic-wave velocities in various sediments with different pore space occupants, demonstrating how the presence of hydrates, ice, and other substances affects shear strength and velocity.

Kingston et al. used a gas hydrate resonant column to explore synthesis methods and measure sediment properties under different water saturation conditions. Their experiments elucidated the role of water saturation in hydrate growth and pore space filling.

Moridis and Kowalsky investigated gas production from unconfined Class 2 hydrate accumulations in the oceanic subsurface. Their study evaluated the potential of depressurization-induced dissociation and thermal stimulation for gas production from such deposits using single-well and five-spot well configurations [6] .

Gas hydrate storage presents complex challenges that necessitate careful consideration and innovative solutions. [40] One significant concern revolves around ensuring wellbore integrity to prevent the release of methane, a potent greenhouse gas, during storage operations. [41] This necessitates robust engineering techniques and monitoring systems to detect and mitigate any potential leaks effectively. Additionally, the stability of gas hydrates under varying geological conditions poses a challenge, as fluctuations in temperature and pressure can affect their integrity. [42] Understanding the dynamics of methane release from gas hydrates is crucial for evaluating the environmental implications and devising effective mitigation strategies. [43] Technological advancements in extraction methods, reservoir engineering, and drilling technologies are imperative to optimize the efficiency and safety of gas hydrate storage. [44] Furthermore, economic feasibility remains a central consideration, with exploration costs, extraction costs, and potential revenue from recovered methane influencing the viability of gas hydrate storage projects. [45] Integrating economic analysis with geological assessments is essential for making informed decisions regarding the implementation of gas hydrate storage as a carbon sequestration method. [46] Cross-disciplinary approaches that explore synergies between gas hydrate storage and carbon capture and utilization (CCU) strategies hold promise for enhancing both economic viability and environmental sustainability. [47] Collaboration between research institutions, industry stakeholders, and governments on a global scale is vital for advancing the research and development of gas hydrate storage technologies. [48] By pooling resources and expertise, international partnerships can accelerate progress in addressing the challenges associated with gas hydrate storage and contribute to mitigating climate change impacts.