Chemical elements in space can be synthesized by stellar nuclear reactors. Studying the dynamics of processes occurring in the stars introduces a concept of the ensemble-averaged stellar reactor. For future interstellar missions, the terrestrial and solar abundances were compared with considerable number of stars allocated in the ~200 pc solar neighborhood. According to the value of the effective temperature, four stellar classes are distinguished, for which the correlation coefficients and standard deviation are calculated. The statement about the possibility of transferring heavy elements synthesized by stars over long distances in space has been completely refuted. There is no immutability of the distribution of elements on neighboring stars and in the Solar System. It is shown that chemical elements are mainly synthesized inside each stellar reactor. The theory of the buoyancy of elements is generalized to stars. It has been suggested that stars overheat due to a shift in the parameters of nuclear processes occurring inside stars, which leads to the synthesis of heavy elements.
The problem of interstellar travels has been of interest to humanity for a long time. After Yuri Gagarin’s first flight into space in 1961, the illusion of rapid discovery of interstellar space appeared. Although the period of 60 years of astronautics led to considerable achievements in space exploration by using satellites and space stations, such research practically did not go beyond the solar system. The size of modern rockets and the amount of fuel in them significantly limit the range of spacecraft fights. Important limitations of manned space research are two problems: firstly, the absence of new principles and approaches in the development of jet propulsion and, secondly, understanding of the direction of further interstellar missions.
This study focused on investigating the possibility of the life origin in the stellar systems allocated in solar neighborhoods. As it is known, all biological species on Earth have a unique DNA code (Deoxyribonucleic Acid), which determines the full diversity of biological species. The DNA includes the following elements: C, O, N, and P. In Section 6, the new concept of DNA-stars was entered, in which spectrums of C, O, N, and P elements were recorded together. The possibility of synthesizing Na, Mg, S, K, Fe, Co, Cu, Zn, Ca, Mn and Mo, regulating the growth and development of the elementary biological forms is also discussed.
However, these elements are synthesized on different stars. For example, according to the B2FH model [
At the beginning of the proceeding, in Section sec: georeactor, the criticisms of older B2FH model and newest K2L model, developed by [
Due to some criticism, some attention should be paid to the parity between criticism and creativity. As it is known, science develops in a spiral, and at certain moments, new knowledge comes into conflict with previously dominant concepts. At the moment of overcoming crisis usually, new hypotheses appear, and great discoveries and inventions are made. Therefore, it should not be surprising that in science, harsh criticism often accompanies the occurrence of discoveries.
After the 2011 disaster at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) initialized testing reactors, primarily industrial and scientific reactors. However, then this process was expanded to the natural reactors. In 2013, it was reported about problems in nuclear geophysics. As it is well-known all stars are natural nuclear reactors. This work discussed the nuclear processes in stars and the synthesis of chemical elements in stellar reactors. Unfortunately, the author is obliged to report that the nuclear astrophysics does not pass the stress-test. It is of interest to devote a few paragraphs to the issue of the spread of the crisis from the Fukushima accident to the collapse of nuclear geophysics [
As it is known, last 30 years several groups carried out experiments on registration geoneutrino and reconstructed inner structure of Earth. There are different schemes of such experiments; among them there is also such scheme, in which registration geoneutrino were observed in thickness of mountain ranges. In recent years there were messages, that 40K and 235U it is impossible to observe during such experiments, see for example in
The implausible mistake of the geoneutrino groups caused serious loss to geophysics and set geophysics back for several decades. Note that early in [
It is possible that after reading the above paragraph, not all readers understood how to make great discoveries. The author once again demonstrates it within another studying case.
In order to make a great discovery, it is necessary to consider for a moment and formulate a critical problem. A classic example of this kind of thinking it was depicted by Auguste Rodin in the sculpture “The Thinker” in composition of “The Gates of Hell”, Musée d’Orsay, Paris. Note that it is a very relevant composition, demonstrated the hell’s frying pan, discussed above. However, now we are starting to discuss other critical problem, namely the origin of terrestrial uranium. Note that the genius is not to criticize other researchers, but to find the right solution.
As it is known, the solar reactor is weak, capable of synthesizing mainly light elements, such as hydrogen and helium. Therefore, according to B2FH and K2L models, the metallization of stars, including our Sun, occurs due to the transfer of heavy elements synthesized on powerful reactors allocated on neutron stars. So, check up the transfer presentce of uranium and decay products, such as iodine and cesium, is of our interest. However, the author with surprise finds out that the transfer equation is absent in galaxy chemical models (GCE). Note that for 80 years of the existence of GCE models, none of the astrophysicists asked a question about the transfer equation. The error is visible even in the name of the models Galactic Chemical Evolution (GCE), so these models are not Galactic Chemical Transport (GCT) models. Therefore author sends a couple of hundred publications in highly rated journals to the trash in several seconds.
Due to the fact that any words about evolution can not replace mathematical calculations, the author did not leave one chance to his opponents. Especially for angry opponents, the simplest textbook transfer task is given below. This task has no solution within the frame of up-to-date astrophysics (
In this work also it was shows that according to modern GCE models iodine, cesium, and uranium were produced, delivered, and distributed with the help of extraterrestrials. This phenomenon has been called the “exclusive delivery” paradox because iodine, cesium, and uranium were delivered from neutron stars bypassing the Sun, as well as other planets such as Venus and Mars. If we say about “exclusive distributed”, we can suspect an alien in each pharmacist, who sold us a bottle of iodine, about the solar abundances please see e.g. [
1) The B2FH and K2L models are failure due to “mystic” absence of a transportation equation;
2) The invariance of element distributions in the solar system, demanded at metallization Sun, is not recorded;
3) The invariance of element distributions on the neighborhood stars is also not recorded;
4) This is the absence of super mega-enriched stars, referred to in this study as a donor-star;
5) This is the absence of a significant quantity of heavy traces in the interstellar space;
6) The absence of bands of uranium, cesium, and iodine in the solar spectrum led to the paradox of “exclusive delivery” of these elements to Earth by “exoplanet aliens”;
| “The solar reactor is weak and can synthesize mainly hydrogen and helium. According to B2FH and K2L models, the thorium can be synthesized in neutron stars (NS), which have a strong reactor. The nearest NS is RX J1856.5-3754, which is allocated at 167 pc from Sun. In the solar system was recorded 1 gram of thorium. How much of thorium has produced the NS donor-star?” |
|---|
7) The statement about a massive explosion of a star due to “oversaturation with iron and nickel” looks doubtful;
8) The statement about zero-impulse “teleportation” of elements in dying low-mass stars contradicts the second law of mechanics. This statement looks even more incredible and fantastic than the “exclusive delivery’’ of iodine and uranium to Earth.
9) The synthesis of elements from vacuum, which can be called “vacuum quantization”, is questionable. It is surprising that such a vacuum feature is observed only near the outer boundary of the galaxy.
10) As it is well known, black holes are allocated mainly in the center of galaxies, so the direction of stellar metalization is opposite to the direction of mass movement towards the center of galaxies. It looks strange, see [
And the last most important question. Whether are nuclear astrophysicists losers or cheaters? If the nuclear astrophysicists introduce themselves as cheaters or gangsters, they should understand that, just as in the case of fraud in experiments with geoneutrinos, fraud in stellar (thermonuclear) synthesis will sooner or later become public knowledge and they will have to deal not with scientists, but with the DOE, NSF, Treasury Department, police (FBI), government, and Congress. However if they interpose themselves as losers, then the question of the nomination and the award of author to the Nobel Prize is relevant, please see author’s studies [
After reading this publication, the reader will learn that in addition to the generally known s- and r-processes, other new synthesis process can occur in the overheated stars (h-process). The detailed analysis of the spatial distribution of overheated stars, in which an effective stellar temperature are more than 6500 K and the heavy elements are synthesized at the h-process, was carried out in [
For life origin sufficiently many elements of periodic table are necessary, so once again, we will underline that synthesis of various elements on different stars practically negate the possibility of the origin of life on remote planets. This study aims to find an answer to the following question: How are the chemical elements necessary for the origin of life synthesized on stars?
A new method, developed in this study for searching for habitable exoplanets, has been applied in [
The abundance of chemical elements on Earth is represented by an almost complete set of elements from the periodic table. From the entire periodic table up to the numbers Z < 94, only two elements, namely technetium (Tc, Z = 52) and promethium (Pm, Z = 61), are missing on Earth. However, many elements such as Se, Br, Kr, Te, I, Xe, Cs, Ta, Re, Pt, Hg, Tl, Bi, and U are not present in the solar photospheric spectrum [
In this work for future interstellar missions, the solar neighborhood’s stellar abundance was analyzed. The data is accessible on the site of Hypatia Stellar Catalog (below HSC) by [
In astrophysics, stellar nucleosynthesis has been studied thoroughly for an extended period. Briefly, we recall the history of stellar nucleosynthesis. In 1946, Hoyle suggested that elements, up to iron and nickel, could be synthesized in stars [
Recently [
The elements, which could not be recorded in the solar photosphere spectrum in [
Both models, the oldest B2FH and newest K2L, are hypothetical models. In this study new model was developed, but this model was based not on abstract theoretical concepts, but the spectral data available to the author. This model is called the ensemble-averaged stellar reactor model. In Section 2.4 - 2.7 description of this model can be found. Further, being based on this model, it was shown that elements are mostly synthesized in interior of the stars, and the contribution of interstellar transport is greatly exaggerated.
We do not have the possibility to scan the change of an individual stellar reactor in the range of billions of years, therefore in our study, we were forced to use the averaging over the ensemble of all HSC stars and investigate the operating characteristics of a hypothetical ensemble—averaged reactor. The novelty of this approach is in that the star ceases to be a static nuclear object. As it is well known, a nuclear reactor produces heat and chemical elements, so that the reactor’s state can be evaluated by abundance and temperature. The statistical distributions of HSC stellar radius measured in the size of solar radius ( R ⊙ ) and the effective stellar temperature were presented in
Both distributions in
The ensemble-averaged stellar reactor (EASR) is a generalized thermal nuclear engine that provides the generation of heat and the variety of chemical elements in the universe. Therefore, it is convenient to represent the dynamics of the ensemble-averaged stellar reactor working in the stellar Radius and stellar effective Temperature coordinates, below RT. The dependence of the stellar radii on the effective temperature is shown in
The distribution of HSC stars in the RT diagram combines of the linear and exponential distributions, drawing by red and blue lines in
R r e d = α + β T (1)
R b l u e = χ e − γ T (2)
where α = 2 , β = 6 × 10 − 4 and χ = 12.86 × 10 5 , γ = 1 / 400 .
In the proposed approach, the stellar mass is not the deciding parameter, so just for comparison, we note that at T = 6500 K , R ~ 1.9 R ⊙ and stellar masses were in the range: M ~ 1.33 - 1.38 M ⊙ . In the RT3 site, the stellar mass reached a maximum value M ~ 1.76 M ⊙ at 7362 K.
The explosive processes of star expansion are indicated in the RT diagram by green lines. These processes occur quickly, so the number of measured values is not sufficient to determine the parameters of the generalized reactor in the area between RT3 and RT2. In the course of calculations, the site of explosive rapid star expansions was not used, and therefore, it does not have a special designation. Conventionally, the temperature corresponding to 7100 K is chosen as the
| Amount of stars | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Name | Description | cs. | % |
| RT1 | 4400 < T < 5200 K , R s > 2 R ⊙ | 859 | 27.0 |
| RT2 | 5600 < T < 6500 K | 1989 | 62.6 |
| RT3 | T > 6500 K | 136 | 4.3 |
| RT4 | 4400 < T < 5200 K , R s < 2 R ⊙ | 192 | 6.0 |
| Total | 3176 | 100 | |
starting point of this explosive site, which in the RT diagram corresponds to R ~ 2.2 R ⊙ and M ~ 1.58 M ⊙ . Further, the stars, located between RT1 and RT2 sites (5200 - 5600 K), for which it is not possible to separate the processes, were also excluded from consideration.
Let’s result in a general characteristic of work such hypothetical the thermal engine. The main process of operation of the heat nuclear engine of the EASR reactor is RT1-RT2-RT3 process. This process is unidirectional, since it is a process of heating, exploding and expanding the star and its compression with the gradual restoration of the stellar reactor’s working state. On the other hand, in the RT4 linear site EASR reactor can operate in both directions, both at new star birthing and at low-mass star dying. Note that synthesis of chemical elements is also possible during dying low-mass stars at the R < 0. Suppose at explosion a star loses a significant amount of its substance. In that case, the EASR reactor may not be able to restore its operation, and the state of the star will slowly change along the RT1-RT2-RT4 path or jump on RT4 path for low-mass star fragments and/or for large gaseous planets such as Jupiter.
In this study, element synthesis (degradation) rates were obtained as bias at the linear regression in functional dependence between element abundances and effective stellar temperature (below AT diagram). In the HSC catalog, the quantity of chemical elements is defined as the deviation from the distribution in the Sun, normalized according to data of [
log ( n element / n H ) ( star ) − log ( n element / n H ) ( solar )
and the unit of element synthesis rate is K−1. The resulting tables will show the correlation coefficient (R) and standard deviation (SD) in AT diagrams. Only statistically significant values with | R | > 0.12 and amount stars N more than 10, (N > 10) will be included in the resulting tables.
Recently, much attention has been paid to exoplanets’ study and the possibility of contacts with other extraterrestrial civilizations. At the moment, the criterion of the temperature comfort for biological species, based on the analysis of the exoplanet distance from a star, is often applied to search for extraterrestrial civilizations. This study proposes another way to search, based on the chemical abundance studied above.
As it is known, all biological species on Earth have a unique DNA code (Deoxyribonucleic Acid), which determines the full diversity of biological species. The DNA is set of four nucleotide ACGT: A—(adenine, C5H5N5), C—(cytosine, C4H5N3O), G—(guanine, C5H5N5O) and T—(thymine, C5H6N2O2). In RNA thymine nucleotide is replaced by U—(uracil, C4H4N2O2). The DNA has two helixes, which covalently linked to a phosphodiester backbone PO− 4 (H3PO4).
Thus, a star system must occur, except hydrogen, which is present in all stars, other essential elements, such as C, N, O, and P. The stars, in which spectrum it was presented together C, N, O, and P elements, below will be called DNA-stars. Note that the term DNA-star was introduced years ago to label a viral test, so please could not be confused with DNA-star, used in this study.
Biological species such as bacteria, algae, and plants can use light from the star to obtain energy, but they also need a growth medium and some microelements. The bulk growth medium, using for cyanobacteria growing, is next: NaNO3 (1.5), K2HPO4 × 3H2O (0.051), MgSO4 × 7H2O (0.075), CaCl2 × 2H2O (0.036), Na2CO3 (0.02), FeCl3 × 6H2O (0.003), in grams per 1 liter [
Biochemical criteria for searching for life on remote stellar system are presence in stellar spectrum the chemical elements necessary for the origin of life.
In this section, we will pay some attention to the following question: Why is it believed that our planet’s core consists of Fe and Ni? As it is known, chemical elements can be synthesized in natural or artificial reactors. Before creating the first artificial reactors, all the chemical elements were synthesized either on the Sun or other remote stars in the Milky Way Galaxy which are also natural reactors.
Because the maximum of nuclear binding energy occurs near 56Fe, stars cannot get energy by nuclear fusion and stellar nucleosynthesis come to a stop on 56Fe. The dependents average binding energy per nucleon versus the atomic number is presented in
In
On the other hand, as it is well known, that in theory the simulated curve of binding energy B(A, Z) is given by using the following formula [
B ( A , Z ) = α ν A + α s A 2 / 3 + α c Z ( Z − 1 ) A − 1 / 3 − − α a s y m ( A − 2 Z ) 2 A + δ α p A − 3 / 4 (3)
where Z is number of protons; N—number of neutrons; A is the mass number. This Equation has 5 terms corresponding to volume, surface, Coulomb, asymmetric and pairing terms. The constants of these terms are fitting parameters that are found experimentally to be equal to next: α n = 15.5 MeV, α s ~ 18 MeV, α c = 0.691 MeV, α a s y m = 23 MeV.
The details about Liquid Drop Model (LDM), discussion about other binding models, and references could be found e.g., in [
The curves presented in
Thus, it is possible to assume that, under loads, the accumulation of transuranic elements can occur, leading to the heating of the stars and then, at the reached threshold values of uranium, the star can undergo explosion and destruction
Hence, exactly asymmetry term, which considers the difference in the number of neutrons and protons in the element, causes that synthesis of elements will stop at Fe. Therefore asymmetry is responsible for the fact that the core of a regular star, which has not undergone explosive transformations, is iron-nickel core. However, at present, in astrophysics, it is assumed that only the pre-collapsed, massive star with mass M > 10 M ⊙ , where M ⊙ is the mass of Sun, has an iron-nickel core.
Heavy elements in this star will be moving down into the inner layers, separated and concentrated at several layers. An “onion’’ model for pre-collapsed massive star ( M > 10 M ⊙ ) is presented in
Despite the fact that the Sun is not a massive star and iron synthesis is impossible on the Sun, there is a steady opinion that the core of our Earth, and the core of the planets in the solar system, consist of Fe and Ni. Thus, the contradiction was formed between astrophysics, nuclear physics, and geophysics. On the one hand, geophysicists, following astrophysicists, began to assert that the core of the planet consists of Fe and Ni. On the other hand, geophysicists state the presence of not only iron in the Earth’s ores but the presence of almost the entire periodic table. However, if the core of the Earth consists of Fe-Ni, then in the depths of the planet there is no room for the rest of the elements, and actually, at present, there is no realistic theory of ore formation. It looks very curious.
It summarizes this section. First, it is essential to note that the binging model (Equation (3)) and experimental values, presented in
This section considered the following question: Could elements heavier than Fe have been synthesized in the Earth’s interior? Thus, it is a question about the existence of the terrestrial Th-U reactor. The idea about an existence of georeactor was discussed after [
Also, the natural nuclear georeactor was investigated in several studies by different research groups [
It is well known the electrons’ antineutrinos that would be emitted from such hypothetical georeactor have energies above the end-point of geoneutrinos from “standard” natural radioactive decays. The main reaction of geoneutrino (antineutrino, ν ˜ e ) registration from natural sources is the inverse beta decay reaction:
ν ˜ e + p → e + + n Q = 1.806 MeV (4)
Using the registration of geoneutrinos, it is possible to determine a part of the terrestrial heat flux from the radioactive elements 232Th and 238U. It will permit to obtain the vertical distribution of these radioactive elements inside of the Earth and, accordingly, to answer the question about presence and power of a natural nuclear reactor in the center of the Earth.
Details of two liquid-scintillator neutrino experiments, such as KamLAND in Japan and Borexino in Italy, in which the geoneutrino signals were measured, could be found in [
A hot debate broke out between the proponents of terrestrial georeactor existence and the opponents, represented mainly by the geoneutrino research groups. However, a significant question is about the possibility of recording neutrinos emitted by 40K and 235U elements. It was established that 40K and 235U fuel layers could not be determined using the inverse beta decay reactions. The lower threshold of inverse beta decay reaction is equal to 1.806 MeV, while the upper boundaries of 40K and 235U geoneutrino spectra are below this value. Thus, the 40K yield is equal to 1.311 MeV, see Equation (5):
K 40 → C 40 a + e − + ν ˜ e Q = 1.311 MeV (5)
The possibility of registration only fuel elements 232Th and 238U casts doubt on the advisability of carrying out long and expensive experiments such as the KamLAND and Borexino Experiments. To summarize the above, it is necessary to state that the attempt to restore Earth’s structure by using geoneutrino experiments ended unsuccessfully before the beginning of these experiments.
If elements such as Fe, Th, and U elements could not have been synthesized on the Earth and Sun, then the next question arises: Could heavy elements have been transferred from neighboring stars? To answer these questions, we should refer to the history of stellar nucleosynthesis research.
As it is known, to explain the origin of elements heavier than iron, the nucleosynthesis theory was expanded and supplemented by the processes of slow neutron capture (s-process) and rapid neutron capture (r-process). Examples of s process and element transformations F 56 e → N 63 are presented in Equation (6):
F 56 e + n → F 57 e + n → F 58 e + n → F 59 e → β C 59 o + n → C 60 o → β N 60 i + n → N 61 i + n → N 63 i + n → N 63 i → β ⋯ (6)
The alternative reactions with involving of the 60Fe, 61Co, 64Ni and corresponded s-process neutron capture equations are not represented in Equation 6.
Due to the s-process, it is possible to explain formation of all elements up to Z = 83. Nuclei with Z, greater than 84, do not have stable isotopes and are radioactive. Therefore, the isotope 232Th is formed from the 232Pb nucleus as a result of eight consecutive β decays. The initial 232Pb nucleus formed in the r-process and it has 24 neutrons more than the stable 208Pb isotope. Note that while the s-process is way of making elements heavier than iron, but a several of lighter isotopes, such as 40K, is also made by the s-process in the massive stars.
In [
However, the possibility of interstellar of a considerable quantity of heavy elements over long distances, and as well as the frequency of Neutron Stars merging (mNS) or core-collapse SuperNovae (ccSNe), raise some doubts in transferring interpretation. Also note that, in this scenario. the relative saturation of mNS products, in particular the Th/U ratio, should be the same in the entire solar system. Moreover, at long-range transferring, in addition to the spatial homogeneity of isotopes and elements within the solar system, same isotopic invariance must be observed for a group of nearby stars, see
Thus, after we run away from the problem of the synthesis of heavy elements in the solar system, we are faced with other problems, namely the problem of transferring of heavy elements in the galaxy at large distances and the problem of a lack of spatial homogeneity of the element distribution of in the solar system and on the stars in the solar neighborhood.
In this section, we will focus on the following question: How to solve the problem of the transfer of elements between stars? The absence of clusters of stars with comparable chemical compositions reduces to a minimum probability of transfer from the ccSNe stars or mNS. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a new concept of heavy element synthesis. This concept should be based on the generation of heavy chemical elements in the interior of the star. Therefore, refusing the paradigm of the element transfer, we should argue that the solar reactor provides the synthesis of all elements represented in the Sun.
The dependences between atomic numbers and logarithmic abundances in the solar photosphere were presented in
elements such as Se, Br, Kr, Te, I, Xe, Cs, Ta, Re, Pt, Hg, Tl, Bi, and U are absent from the photospheric solar spectrum.
In the helioseismology were recorded two parameters: the base of the convection zone (rb) and the helium abundance in the solar convection zone (Ys), see e.g. [
The reduction of heavy elements’ abundances at the increasing atomic number is represented in both the terrestrial and solar distributions. Also, in Sun, just as in Earth, the heavy elements sink downward, and their presence in the photospheric spectrum is masked by thermoclines. However, unlike the structure of the Earth’s layers, the presents of 40K fuel and Cs decay layers was not clearly recorded in the solar structure. At the same time the thermocline, corresponding to Cs layer, is noticeable in the solar structure, presented in
It is well known that another essential source of information of solar abundance is chondrites, which are meteorites that have never been heated to melting temperatures. In this study, we used carbonaceous meteorites of Ivuna type, below called as CI chondrites meteorites. The CI chondrites composition data was obtained from [
Usually, in the studies, the coincidence of solar and CI abundances were analyzed, but we are interested in the Melted-Non-Melted filter, which is characterized by the difference between these values. The difference of logarithmic CI carbonaceous chondrites abundance by [
Thus, it is possible to assert with some certainty that the decay products and the nuclear fuel elements form the system of discontinuities due to a change in the state of upper and lower layers. These K-Sr-Cs-Pb-Th-U discontinuities are recorded in seismograms. Also, it is remarked that in the solar spectrum, the Sr discontinuity is noticeable, but chemical elements such as I, Cs and U are absent, which indirectly indicates that, at present the Th burning with the U isotopes formation does not occur, so our star is in equilibrium, steady condition.
If stars explode, it is undoubtedly interesting to find out what heavy elements are present in interstellar space. The delta between interstellar gas abundances, forward to ζ-Oph and CI meteorites, was presented in
Below, we briefly recall why the gaps appear near Sr and Cs in the distribution of chemical elements during reactor operation. The heavy isotopes involved in the fractional chain neutron fission yields and the synthesis of elements are as follows: 232Th, 233U, 235U, 238U, 239Pu, and some other.
As an example, the mass yield curves for the thermal, fast and high neutron fission of 232Th and 235U were presented in S
Note that distribution of chain fission products has two maxima in ~90 and 140. Like this the first maximum gives more than 5.5% in the yield of 235Uthermal path for the next isotopes: 38 90 Sr (5.73%), 40 95 Zr (6.50%), 41 95 Nb (6.50%), 42 99 Mo (6.13%) and 43 99 Tc (6.13%). Further the second maximum in yield gets isotopes: 53 133 I (6.59%), 53 135 I (6.39%), 54 133 Xe (6.60%), 54 135 Xe (6.61%), 55 137 Cs (6.22%), 56 140 Ba (6.31%), 57 140 La (6.32%) and 58 141 Ce (5.86%). Also note that similar peaks of I, Xe and Cs fractional chain fission yields are obtained of 233U, 236Pu and 241Pu decays.
Also remind that, the thermal emissions of 232Th, 235U, 238U are equal to 9.46 × 10−5, 5.69 × 10−5, 2.64 × 10−5 W/kg, respectively. The half-lives of 232Th, 235U, 238U are equal to 14.01, 0.704, 4.468 Ga, respectively. The thermal emissions of the fuel element 40K are equal to 2.92 × 10−5 W/kg and this fuel element has a half-life period of 1.25 Ga years.
Summarize all the above.
The synthesis of different elements on different stars made it impossible to create biological forms on remote stars. Therefore, first of all, it was necessary to show that the B2FH and K2L models of the synthesis of chemical elements incorrectly describe the processes occurring on stars. Thus there are four major lacks in the B2FH and K2L theories:
• The invariance of element distributions in the solar system is not recorded;
• The invariance of element distributions on the neighborhood stars also is not recorded;
• It is the absence of super mega-enriched stars, called in this study as a donor-stars;
• It is absent significant quantity of heavy traces in the interstellar space.
The difference in representation of the enriched process between this study and B2FH and K2L models was presented below in
By examining the stellar reactors of stars in different stages of development, we can observe the dynamics of stellar reactors’ operation. As a result, a reactor’s work is characterized by temperature changes, and a synthesis of elements. It is of interest to determine the correlation coefficients between element abundances and effective stellar temperature.
The total amount of recorded processes, both synthesis and degradation, are presented in
Due to limited place in the paper, all linear regressions are collected in Tables in Supplementary (S
Due to stars being far away, so the absorption in the spectral lines are comparable to the noise, which prevents accurate recorded element abundances in the stellar spectrums. Therefore, only for several elements, which are colored in the margin or blue in
This section is devoted to an analysis of the abundances of DNA elements in stellar spectrums. The dynamics of the star’s development depend neither on the statistical significance of the calculations nor on the accuracy of the spectral measurements carried out by researchers on Earth. Therefore, at the research of dynamics of element syntheses in RT stellar groups, we may present all the results regardless of their statistical significance. Remind that statistically significant results have been shown above in S
First, the proton-proton (pp) chain and the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle will be considered. The last update to the standard solar model and a discussion on CNO cycle can be found in [
| Stellar Enriched Process is: | |
|---|---|
| Nuclear Fusion (self-enriched process) | this study |
| Nuclear Fusion (in donor-star) + Interstellar Transfera from donor star to acceptor star | B2FH and K2L |
aRemind that the transfer equation in the GCE models is mistical lacking.
| Name | Amount of elements | Total amount | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Synthesis R > 0 | Degradation R < 0 | ||
| RT1 | 9 (3) | 28 (9) | 37 |
| RT2 | 14 (1) | 7 (2) | 21 |
| RT3 | 28 (6) | 6 (3) | 34 |
| RT4a | 3 (0) | 13 (6) | 16 |
aRT4 site the generalized star nuclear reactor can work in both directions, both at the origin of new stars and at dying low-mass stars. Therefore element synthesis is also possible at dying low-mass stars, i.e. at the R < 0.
7 14 N + 1 1 H → 8 15 O + γ + 7.35 M e V 8 15 O → 7 15 N + e + + ν e + 2.75 M e V 7 15 N + 1 1 H → 8 16 O + γ + 12.13 M e V 8 16 O + 1 1 H → 9 17 F + γ + 0.60 M e V 9 17 F → 8 17 O + e + + ν e + 2.76 M e V ( f a s t ) 8 17 O + 1 1 H → 7 14 N + 2 4 H e + 1.19 M e V (7)
Note that the CNO cycle involves fluorine (F, Z = 9), which is not represented in
According to B2FH and K2L models, several elements, including C and N, are synthesized at dying low-mass stars. These elements are colored in
looks even more incredible and fantasy than the exclusive delivery of uranium to Earth, presented in
According to GCE models, such as B2FH and K2L, the star enrichment happened due to matter transfer from donor-star to acceptor-star. However, considerable impulse is required to transfer the matter to interstellar distances. Since there is burning out of nuclear fuels with the gradual cooling of the stellar nuclear reactor at dying low-mass stars, the transfer of impulse from dying low-mass star to the impurity cloud seems doubtful.
At zero impulse, respectively, the transfer to zero distance will occur. Thus, according to B2FH and K2L theories, at dying the low-mass stars enriched themselves. In the frame of these theories, with an exception for binary stars, it looks paradoxical. I would like to emphasize that this contradiction exists only within the framework of B2FH and K2L theories. According to this conception, one star enriches another star; sometimes the last one allocates at hundreds pc away from ones. Note that this study suggested another concept, according to which the star itself synthesizes all the elements (self-enriched process), passing through different stages of its development.
According to the results of this study, nitrogen is synthesized in a “hot” stellar group in the RT3 stage in
Next, we will consider the elements necessary for the growth of the simplest phototrophs, such as cyanobacteria. The linear regression for Na, Mg, S, K and Fe, Co, Cu, Zn abundances were presented in
Note the following: nearby elements have similar patterns of stellar reactor operation; for example, this is true for Na-Mg or other Fe-Co pairs; please compare
Unlike mentioned above Na, Mg, S, Fe, Co, Cu, and Zn elements, potassium behavior is different. In the spectrums of the RT4 stellar group, the presence of potassium was practically not revealed. In addition, for big, cold stars from the RT1 stellar group, an increase in the K abundance is observed, and it is not surprising since it is known that potassium has a fuel isotope of 40K.
We especially note that the theoretical Fe-Ni threshold of exothermic-endothermic fusion reactions (Equation (3) and
Sometimes in the stellar spectra, along with the ground state, ionized excited lines are observed. The behavior of the ground and the excited state can be explained by the Non-LTE effects of Ca I or Ca II lines [
The manganese (Mn, z = 25) and molybdenum (Mo, z = 42) are the last elements that we have classified as elements necessary for the simplest phototrophic organisms’ growth. The linear regression of Mn and Mo were shown in
Note the general trend: moving ahead along the periodic table, the number of stars in the spectrum of which these elements were registered decreases rather quickly, even in comparison to the elements located in the same row of the periodic table. Molybdenum is not synthesized in the entire RT3 range, but only in the temperature range of 5500 - 6000 K, that is, closer to the G2V spectral group. Moreover, Mo abundance was not detected in the RT3 stellar group, and in the RT4 group, it was detected only in three stars
It is summarized the results of Section 5. In this section, we analyzed the work of the ensemble-averaged stellar reactor. We showed that this reactor works similarly for all the stars presented in the catalog and provides the synthesis of stellar abundances. Due to stratification and sink of heavy elements, the spectra of heavier elements are less pronounced in stellar spectrums. The effective temperature of the stars is a kind of indicator of the power of the reactor operation. Therefore, the main synthesis of elements occurs in the RT2 and RT3 stellar groups, on which the temperature of the stars is higher.
The statistical values of C, N, O, and P, are summarized in
| Elements | Amount of stars | |
|---|---|---|
| pcs. | % | |
| C | 3217 | 85.6 |
| O | 3107 | 82.7 |
| N | 1044 | 27.8 |
| P | 86 | 2.3 |
| C, N, O and P (DNA-stars) | 48 | 1.3 |
| C, N, O and P (class G2V) | 3 | 0.08 |
| similar to Earth abundances | 9 | 0.24 |
| Total amount of stars | 3757 | 100 |
1) From the comparison of the B2FH and K2L models with terrestrial element abundance, it follows that the existence of a set of elements, which was found on Earth, can not be provided by a single source. To provide a full abundance of chemical elements in the solar spectrum, different types of stars located around our Sun had to blow up together, which is a very low-probability event.
2) In the B2FH model, the frequency of neutron star collisions raised doubts, so new K2L model was included in our consideration. According to the K2L model, the neutron star collisions do not create the quantity of chemical elements that than were previously assumed. In addition to the common lack of these models, related to the element transfer in space, each model has individual defects. This K2L model can not explain the amount of such elements as Cl, K, Sc, As and Au and creating new astronomical mystery. In summary, we can conclude: the new K2L mode did not solve the previous B2FH model’s problems.
3) During propagation in interstellar space, the concentration of element abundances will rapidly decrease with the donor star’s distance. At uniform spherical 3D expansion, the decrease will occur as ~1/r2, and at cylindrical 2D expansion the concentration will decrease as ~1/r. Thus, for receiving one gram of Th and U on Earth, it is required that the donor star has a colossal value of transuranic elements, i.e., this case the donor-star must entirely consist of thorium or uranium. But such stars have not been found in our galaxy.
4) On nearby stars, the invariance of abundances of individual elements, or invariance of the ratio of the abundances of related elements are not recorded. Therefore, it can be argued that in stellar spectrums there are no traces of plumes from ccSNe or mNS. In addition, only several nuclear decay elements were recorded in the interstellar space, but plumes themselves are not recorded. Thus, the spatial distribution of elements does not confirm the correctness of the B2FH and K2L models. In these two models, it was stated that all elements, heavier than iron, synthesized on stars during the s and r processes, have been transferred to other star systems.
5) At the dying low-mass stars, the initial impulse is small or absent, so there is a problem to explain the interstellar transfer of elements from a donor-star to neighboring ones.
6) Looking at the “onion’’ structure of a massive star, the author wants to cry bitter tears. Astrophysicists, without a shadow of a doubt, very seriously claim that iron isotopes, including 56Fe, can explode. Probably astrophysicists do not realize that it is impossible to make a nuclear bomb from iron.
Therefore, the statement that massive stars will explode due to the over-saturation of Fe and Ni, causes reasonable anxiety to the author of the study. Recall that according to B2FH and K2L synthesis models, 40K can be obtained only in the s-process, so in stars with the “onion’’ structure, this nuclear layer is absent. Thus, we have led readers to the idea that massive stars with “onion’’ structure can not explode since there are no fuel nuclear K-Th-U layers in their internal structures. The clue to solve the problem of explosive massive stars could be found in an abundance of interstellar gas in [
7) Next, we will pay attention to one more feature. According to the B2FH and K2L models, it turns out that there is “exclusive delivery’’ of uranium from neutron or massive stars to the Earth. This paradox of an “exclusive delivery’’ of U and I, Cs, Pt, Hg, Bi, Po, and Rn to Earth for sure can bring interest to our readers and probably raise a hot discussion.
In this study, the possibility of the life origin in other star systems, located at a distance of ~200 pc from the solar system, was investigated. For the origin of life the synthesis of chemical elements, such as C, N, O and P, which are necessary for the forming of DNA and biological organisms, are essential. The stars, in spectrums of which these elements are presented, are called as DNA stars. However, the synthesis of chemical elements is impossible without the work of nuclear reactors. For that, the concept of the ensemble-averaged stellar reactor (EASR) was introduced. The comparisons between the working of terrestrial, solar, and EAST nuclear reactors were carrying out.
The main results of this study are following:
In life science: Based on the chemical compounds, a new method for searching for habitable star systems has been developed and 48 DNA-stars in the solar neighborhood, on which life is possible, has been determined. These stars make up only 1.3% of the total 3757 amount of studied stars, see
In stellar nucleogenesis: From the comparison of terrestrial, solar, and stellar abundances, it was established that terrestrial, solar, and ensemble-averaged stellar reactors have a common K-Sr-Cs-Pb-Th-U multilayer structure. The theory of the buoyancy of elements and isotopes, developed earlier to describe the processes occurring in the interior of the planet in [
The majority of the elements, which have been found out in the solar system, have been synthesised in our solar system. Further accumulation of transuranic elements inside star leads to reach a critical nuclear mass, and at the end to the star explosion.
We would like to thank N. R. Hinkel, F. X. Timmes, P. A. Young, M. D. Pagano, M. C. Turnbull for providing valuable and useful Hypatia Stellar Catalog. Also sincerely thanks to the members of JHEPGC for their professional performance, and special thanks to managing editor Ms. Zoey YANG for a rare attitude of high quality.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
Safronov, A.N. (2024) Life Origin in the Milky Way Galaxy: I. The Stellar Nucleogenesis of Elements Necessary for the Life Origin. Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology, 10, 647-680. https://doi.org/10.4236/jhepgc.2024.102040
The following supporting information can be downloaded at Researchgate site or on request at author: The set of Tables are included: S
The set of Figures are next: S