EPE Energy and Power Engineering 1949-243X Scientific Research Publishing 10.4236/epe.2024.162003 EPE-131337 Articles Engineering Renewable Energy: Prospects and Challenges in Bangladesh Abul Fattah Mohammad Masum Rabbani 1 Md. Masudur Rahman Rahat 2 Ahsan Habib 2 * Md. Nazrul Islam 2 Department of Chemistry, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh Bangladesh Police, Dhaka, Bangladesh 26 02 2024 16 02 43 78 8, December 2023 24, February 2024 27, February 2024 © Copyright 2014 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc. 2014 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY). http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Among expert scientists and politicians, there is increasing agreement that it is absolutely necessary to reduce the emission of greenhouse gas (GHG) to lessen the severity of climate change. Although little, renewable energy sources currently reduce GHG that are being emitted from the energy industries. According to the majority of long-term energy estimates, renewable energy will be a substantial addition to the supply of energy worldwide by the end of this century, as capacity of renewable energy is gradually increasing in the early decades. However, developing nations like Bangladesh are largely reliant on pricey imported energy supplies (coal, gas, and oil) that lay a heavy weight on the country’s economy. Also, air pollution growing in importance as a national and international environmental issue. Regarding the development of clean and sustainable energy, renewable energy sources seem to be among the most practical and efficient alternatives, in both Bangladesh and globally. The geographic advantages of Bangladesh allow for widespread usage of the majority of such renewable energy sources. The comparative potential and use of fossil fuels against renewable energy sources globally and in Bangladesh is explored in this review.

Renewable Energy Solar and Photovoltaics Hydropower Wind Energy Geothermal 1. Introduction

Energy is the crucial factor for achieving social and economic development and a good quality of life. However, the current energy sources, in particular thermal power plants, might not be viable for long run. Combustion of fossil fuels release heat-trapping chemicals called greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere. Other exhaust gases from thermal plants, such as oxides nitrogen and sulfur, carbon monoxide, and ozone, are extremely hazardous to human health. Fossil fuels are constrained by the earth’s finite supply and expected to be depleted by the end of this century. Oil, for example, will be depleted in about 50 years, coal in about 114 years, and natural gas in about 53 years [1] . Since renewable energy is still not widely used, depleting our stocks will hasten its adoption worldwide.

Over the past 50 years, energy consumption across the globe has increased steadily (Figure 1), and in 2021 it was about 25,300 TWh. 61% of this electricity was generated using fossil fuels, including coal, natural gas, petroleum, and other gases. In 2019, there was a total consumption of 23,921 TWh [2] .

Coal-based thermal power plants generated 60% - 61% of the electricity produced throughout the world, whereas nuclear power plants contributed 10%, and renewable energy sources like solar, wind, hydropower etc. generated about 29% (Figure 2).

The world population expanded by nearly 75% between 1980 and 2021, while the use of power more than tripled. Worldwide increases in industrialization have further increased demand for power. It is anticipated that by 2050, the world would produce more than 40,000 TWh of energy, 90% of which will come from renewable sources. Close to 70% will be made up from wind and solar photovoltaics (PV) together. As the International Energy agency (IEA) forecasted in 2014, the sun may serve as the world’s main energy source by 2050.

The requirement to control emissions of GHGs and other pollutants into the atmosphere will increase along with the efficiency of energy production, distribution, transmission and usage. As investors and officials from all over the world increasingly appreciate critical role of electricity in economic development and improving living conditions, infrastructures for power generation and supply are being developed and extended in many developing countries [3] [4] [5] . Additionally, an overabundance of nuclear fuel extraction could result in a nuclear disaster [6] . However, renewable energy sources are so plentiful that they might successfully meet all of the energy demands predicted for the world over the next century [7] - [12] .

Globally, the energy sector is anticipated to develop by about 36% between 2011 and 2030, with 1.6% annual growth on average. The equivalent amount of oil in this will become 16.5 billion tons in 2030 increasing from 10.3 billion tons in 2002. (Table 1) [13] [14] . In the past, the yearly growth rate was 2%. It was predicted that the energy usage across the world would rise by almost 78% between 2013 and 2030 [15] [16] [17] . Between 2020 and 2021, percentage of renewable energy in total power generated in the world stayed constant at 28.1%, down from 26.3% in 2019. Globally, the generation of renewable energy increased dramatically (+1.75 points) between 2019 and 2020 but remained constant in 2022.

Oil is the single largest fuel used to meet the world’s energy demands. About 78,470 barrels were consumed in 2002, 87,105 in 2007, and then consumption fell in 2009 (84,083 barrels). In 2019, oil consumption peaked once more (97,747 barrels)

Total energy (M<sub>toe</sub>) consumption globally [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.131337-ref13">13</xref>] [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.131337-ref14">14</xref>]
1971 2002 2010 2030 2010-2030 (%)a
Coal 617 502 516 526 0.2
Oil 1893 3041 3610 5005 1.8
Gas 604 1150 1336 1758 1.5
Electricity 377 1139 1436 2263 2.5
Heat 68 237 254 294 0.8
Biomass and waste 641 999 1101 1290 0.9
Other Renewables 0 8 13 41 6.2
Total 4200 7075 8267 11.176 1.6

aAverage annual growth rate; Mtoe equivalent to 11.6279 TWh.

[16] . The percentage of oil used worldwide for transportation increased from 33% in 1971 to 47% in 2002 and is anticipated to reach 54% in 2030. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) member countries have committed to drastically reduce their usage of oil in the residential and service sectors. In many developing countries, particularly in rural regions, products based on oil will be the main source of contemporary commercial energy for cooking and heating [13] .

During the predicted period, 1998-2021, the worldwide natural gas consumption rate was at a steady state of 2.3% annually [17] . It was projected that the household, commercial, and industrial sectors would utilize more natural gas. 60% of the increase in gas consumption would be attributed to the power sector, whose market share will expand from 36% in 2002 to 47% in 2030. In all regions, the demand will be primarily driven by the power sector. Since the need for power is anticipated to increase most quickly in developing countries, this tendency will be particularly noticeable there. Since high-efficiency combined-cycle gas turbines (CCGTs) use natural gas as the preferred fuel, it will continue to be the most affordable fuel for new power plants in the majority of the world. A small but rising fraction of the global demand for natural gas will be met by gas-to-liquid facilities and synthesis of hydrogen as fuel for hydrogen fuel cells [15] .

The expected growth in coal combustion from 2002 to 2030 was 1.5% per year. Due to strong efforts made by the OECD and other countries to minimize the use of coal due to carbon emissions, the rate of coal consumption was practically unchanged from 2008 to 2010.But in 2021, when it increased by 6.3%, coal consumption experienced a similar significant rebound as that of oil and natural gas. Non-OECD countries are the consumers of about 81.5% of the coal usage across the world. However, the consumption of coal across the world is expected to rise by a small margin in 2022, bringing it back to the highest point it attained about ten years ago [18] .

The peaceful application of nuclear fission for electricity generation came into focus in the 1950s. Approximately 440 nuclear reactors generate about 10% of the total electricity generated in the world today. Nuclear technology is the second-biggest producer of low-carbon energy globally, accounting for 28% of the worldwide supply in 2019. A few nuclear power plants were constructed and first emerged in 1970, after that, the rate of nuclear energy production significantly rose until 2006. After the accident occurred at the Fukushima nuclear power plant, the rate of nuclear energy output started to drop and eventually reached a minimum [19] , but once again been boosted and maintained constant throughout 2019-2021 due to the fuel problem and global warming (Figure 3).

It is anticipated that renewable energy use will increase and reach 247 exajoules (~68,666 TWh) by 2050 (Figure 4). In contrast, the entire consumption of renewable energy was 42 exajoules in 2000 (or approximately 11,676 TWh).

The rate of consumption of coal and oil will decline over the forecast period (Figure 4), whereas the rate of consumption of renewable energy will dramatically rise [21] .

2. Sustainable Energy for Development

A crucial prerequisite for development and the eradication of poverty is access to modern energy facilities. The European countries have heavily depended on fossil fuels for their development from the dawn of the industrial period. The environmental costs that ensue, as well as the threats to the global climate, are widely understood. The situation is getting worse as developing countries strive to catch up economically by depending on traditional energy technologies. Therefore, it is becoming more vital than ever to promote renewable energy sources and investigate ways to save energy globally [13] . The industrialized countries bear the primary duty for creating technology for a sustainable global energy system. It is advisable to encourage emerging countries to take part in this international endeavor. In this regard, one only needs to think back to the countries’ advantageous natural environments, which would make it easier to use renewable resources like solar panels, wind energy from the Bay of Bengal, and hillside trails, notably in Bangladesh.

Decentralized use of electricity generated from renewable energy offers the greatest benefits. It can open new opportunities for underdeveloped rural areas where it would be economically unviable to build an electricity network. This can help fight poverty. Many developing countries may cut back on their reliance on imported fossil fuels and the financial strain brought on by market volatility with the aid of renewable energy sources [10] [12] .

The World Future Energy Summit, the largest business event for sustainability and future energy, took place in Abu Dhabi in 2021 [22] . It placed an emphasis on cutting-edge technology and ideas in the fields of efficient use of energy, water, solar energy, waste management, urban planning, climate, and the environment. Government and business leaders, 840 skilled exhibitors, and 34,000 tourists from 125 different countries were all there. In 2002, Johannesburg, South Africa, hosted the first Sustainable Development Summit. By dedicating one billion euros up until 2007 for initiatives involving sustainable energy for international development, the German government made a strong statement during the summit. The initiative seeks to assist the partner nations improve their access to environmentally friendly energy, fight poverty, and switch from energy production techniques that hurt our climate and ecosystem to environmentally favorable ones [23] .

3. Renewable Energies

Renewable energy is that which is produced from resources that can be replenished naturally throughout time. The term refers to energy sources such as sunlight, wind, river flow, and geothermal heat etc. [24] . Although initiatives involving renewable energy are often large-scale, they can also be applied for rural, remote, and underdeveloped countries [25] [26] . Renewable energy is commonly used with further electrification to optimize the advantages of electricity. Electricity is clean at its point of use [27] [28] .

Between 2011 and 2021, renewable energy reached 28% from 20% of the worldwide supply of electricity (Figure 5). Nuclear power decreased to 10% from 12%, and fossil fuels reached 62% from 68%. Hydropower’s contribution dropped to 15% while solar and wind energy increased to 10% from 2% [29] [30] . The proportion of geothermal energy increased by 1%, as did biomass. There are 3146 gigawatts of capacity currently operational in 135 countries, even though 156 countries have laws overseeing the renewable energy industry. China accounted for about half of the increase in renewable electricity produced globally in 2021 [31] .

Renewable energy systems account for a sizeable fraction of newly established power capacity throughout the world, and they are quickly improving in effectiveness, cost, and share of total energy consumption [32] [33] [34] . In most countries, photovoltaic solar panels or onshore wind power are the least expensive sources of electricity for new construction [35] .

Globally, many countries already generate over 20% of the needed energy from renewable sources, and others produce in excess of 50% of required electricity this way [36] . National renewable energy markets are expected to keep growing quickly into the 2020s and beyond [37] . According to studies, it is both technically and economically feasible to transition to 100% renewable energy in all applications, including heating, electricity, transportation, and desalination [38] [39] [40] .

The utilization of energy-efficient technologies and renewable energy sources significantly boosts economic benefits, security of energy, and mitigation of climate change [41] . Renewable energy development is, however, being hampered by subsidies for fossil fuels totaling several hundred billion dollars [42] . In surveys considering international opinion, wind and solar along with other renewable energy sources have received overwhelming public approval [43] [44] . The International Energy Agency indicated in 2021 that greater efforts are needed to promote renewable energy in order to attain net zero carbon emissions, and it urged an increase in generation of about 12% per year until 2030 [45] .

3.1. Motives and Advantages

Fossil fuels are being consumed much faster than they are being replaced. The sources of renewable energy are scattered over a large area, in contrast to fossil fuels, which are mainly found in just a handful of countries. The economy and energy security would benefit from rapid adoption of renewable energy sources, improved efficiency, and technically diversified energy sources [40] .

Additionally, it would improve public health, decrease early deaths from pollution, and minimize associated expenditures that might save large sum of money annually. Environmental contamination, such as air pollution caused by the combustion of fossil fuels, would also be reduced [46] [47] . The costs of implementing decarbonization measures can be largely compensated by quantitative health gains, according to numerous assessments of these strategies [48] [49] .

Concerns regarding climate change, as well as the ongoing reduction in the cost of some technologies that generate electricity from renewable sources like windmills and solar power plants, are driving an upsurge in renewable energy consumption [43] . The sector was able to survive through the global financial crisis better than many other industries thanks to new government expenditures, rules, and policies [50] . The IRENA anticipates that by 2019, renewables’ overall share in the energy mix, including energy use, heating, and transportation, must climb six times faster than the present level [51] .

3.2. Prospects of Renewable Energy

The growth and development of a system for supplying energy is crucial for any nation to accomplish the objectives of the UN Millennium Declaration. These goals are achieved through using renewable energy resources and energy-efficient technologies in emerging nations. They enable decentralized energy access so that even in rural areas, the problem of energy supply won’t be a barrier to development. By substituting them for fossil fuels, they lessen the economic dependence on energy imports that many countries face [52] [53] [54] [55] [56] .

The burning of coal, natural gas, and petroleum also endangers the ecosystem and the climate worldwide. The world’s energy source must become more sustainable in the future. It must provide for the basic requirements of the world’s impoverished without depleting the planet’s finite natural resources and endangering present- and future-generational life. This may be accomplished by utilizing energy more efficiently and relying on sources of clean energy such as wind power, hydroelectric power, solar energy, and geothermal energy. Currently, renewable energy sources provide around 30% of the worldwide overall energy needs. The sun provides the globe with enough energy to theoretically meet all the planet’s energy needs 15,000 times over. The goal right now is to exploit some of this potential for the benefit of humanity. By the year 2050, according to experts, renewable energy sources might supply nearly half of the world’s energy needs [52] [57] . Many types of renewable energy exist, including massive hydropower dams and windmills, small PV installations that power individual homes or small villages commonly named as solar home systems or drive water pumps off the grid. Geothermal energy provides a cost-effective alternative for heating and electricity generation. It is well recognized that the energy supply has been insufficient in many developing and newly industrial countries up to this point. There is no national electricity network serving vast areas. Large portion of the population’s energy needs are traditionally met by natural resources, primarily wood. Because the soil erodes without vegetation cover, this contributes to deforestation, which in many locations causes severe environmental concerns. This is a significant barrier to these countries’ economic development [55] .

3.3 Renewable Energies to Combat Global Warming

The primary global sources of CO2, one of the main GHGs, are electricity and heat generation (31%), combustion of fuel for transportation (15%). Agriculture contributes about 11%. About 72% of emissions come from all forms of energy production. By affecting their operations, supply chains, consumers, employees, and other stakeholders, companies in the service sector have a chance to change the behaviors necessary to halt the most devastating effects of climate change [56] [57] .

Since the beginning of the industrial period, increasing volumes of gases have been released into the atmosphere. The effects caused by the current energy system on the environment are shown in Table 2 [58] . Table 3 illustrates global emission of CO2 according to region [58] .

Combustion of coal, petroleum, and natural gas used in industrialized countries resulted in massive CO2 emissions into the environment [8] [58] . Globally, temperatures have increased by 0.6˚C on average over the previous century, and severe weather events like droughts, floods and massive storms have been clearly on the rise recently. By the end of 21st century, the CO2 content might be three times what it was in the pre-industrial era. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicts that temperature may rise up to 5.8˚C during the next century [6] [7] [8] . The main industry in many developing nations is agriculture. They may suffer significant economic losses due to extreme weather conditions

Effects of the current energy system on the environment [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.131337-ref53">53</xref>]
Energy source Inherent Avoidable
Global Local Global Local
Coal CO2 Mining Acid rain Air pollution
Oil CO2 Ocean Pollution Air pollution, local water resources
Gas CO2 Greenhouse gases due to leaking pipelines
Hydropower Aquatic ecosystems/Competition with other water usage Aquatic ecosystems/Competition with other water usage
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Radioactive waste
Global CO<sub>2</sub> emissions (1990-2025) [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="scirp.131337-ref59">59</xref>]
Mature market economies 10,465 11,877 13,080 13,745 14,392 15,183
North America 5769 6701 7674 8204 8759 9379
Western Europe 3413 3549 3674 3761 3812 3952
Mature market Asia 1284 1627 1731 1780 1822 1852
Transitional Economies 4894 3124 3643 3937 4151 4386
Emerging Economies 6101 9408 13,478 15,602 17,480 19,222
Asia 3890 6205 9306 10,863 12,263 13,540
Middle East 845 1361 1761 1975 2163 2352
Africa 655 854 1122 1283 1415 1524
Central and South America 711 988 1289 1480 1639 1806
Total World 21,460 24,409 30,201 33,284 36,023 38,790

and shifting climatic circumstances. The countries with developing economies under consideration face a serious threat to their existence from climate change, particularly for the less wealthy parts of the population [8] . The industrialized countries bear most of the blame for this. As quickly as feasible, they will need to switch to the production of renewable and CO2-free energy. Investments in greater energy efficiency are a crucial component of climate change policy.

3.4. Renewable Energy Power Generation 3.4.1. Solar Energy

Sunlight is harnessed utilizing a range of technologies such as photovoltaics, concentrated solar power (CSP), concentrator photovoltaics (CPV) and synthetic photosynthesis [60] [61] . Solar energy now accounts for the majority of new renewable energy [62] . Together with CSP, solar PV technology has the greatest potential of all the renewable energy sources. It has become a rapidly expanding multi billion-dollar business [63] [64] . CSP devices use mirrors, tracking mechanisms, and lenses to concentrate a broad region of sunlight into a tiny beam. The first commercially viable concentrated solar power facilities were built in the 1980s. The most effective solar energy technology by far is CSP-Stirling. Figure 6 displays global maps of horizontal sun irradiation.

The IEA stated in 2011 that there will be tremendous long-term benefits from the development of clean, affordable solar energy technology. By relying on a local, limitless, and largely import-independent resource, it will promote sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the cost of tackling climate change, and guarantee lower fossil fuel expenditures. These advantages are universal. As a result, the increased expenses associated with initial deployment should be seen as exploring expenditures; they need to be carefully planned for and budgeted [60] . About 505 GWh per year, or about 2% of global electricity, comes from solar energy. Anywhere that receives sunshine can be used to generate power using solar energy, but the amount that can be used depends on the weather, the location, and the time of day [66] . The IPCC 2022 climate mitigation report states that direct solar energy has a much greater global potential than any other renewable energy source. It goes much above the entire energy required to support mitigation during the 20th century [67] . The world’s highest percentage of solar energy is found in Australia, which will meet 9.9% of the nation’s electrical needs in 2020 [68] . Over 30 percent of Australian residences currently have rooftop solar PV systems installed, having an overall power generation capacity of in excess of 11 GWh [69] . Table 4 displays the global electricity power generation capacity based on solar-based technologies.

Global electricity generation using solar-based technologies
Electricity generation capacity 849.5 GWh (2021) [70]
Annual growth rate of electricity generation capacity 26% (2012-2021) [71]
Percentage of generated electricity 2% (2018) [35]
Leveled price/MWh USD 38.343 for Utility-scale photovoltaics (2019) [72]
Basic technologies CPV, PV, solar thermal collector
Additional uses of energy Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC); water treatment; water heating; cooking; water treatment

One of the most promising sources of renewable energy in Bangladesh is solar energy, which experiences more than 300 sunny days annually with an average solar radiation of 5 kWh/m2. This is because the country lies 2668.68 kilometers north of the equator, placing it in the northern hemisphere. To encourage the use of renewable energy, the government of Bangladesh has already started the “500 MWh Solar Power Mission”. Solar energy, wind energy, hydropower etc. can all help to partially meet the country’s energy needs. Considering this, efforts are being undertaken to create visible light-sensitive nanomaterials and to mineralize organic contaminants in industrial wastewater while under solar radiation [73] [74] [75] [76] [77] .

3.4.2. Wind Energy

One of the promising renewable technologies is wind energy. Wind turbines can be operated by air flow. Modern utility-scale wind turbines have rated powers that range from around 600 kWh to 9 MWh. Since the power produced by the wind is a function of the wind speed, as the wind speed climbs, the turbine’s power output reaches its maximum level [78] . Wind farms are typically located in locations with stronger, more consistent winds, like coastal and high-altitude locations. The typical annual full load periods for windmills range from 16% to 57%; however, in particularly advantageous offshore areas, they may be greater [79] .

Large-scale wind turbine installation would be necessary for this, especially in locations with abundant wind resources. Offshore wind resources can produce significantly more electricity than turbines that are installed on land since their average wind speeds are about 90% higher than those on land [80] . Table 5 illustrates the amount of electricity produced worldwide utilizing wind-based technologies.

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