An ecoregion is defined as an area delineated by natural boundaries, possessing a distinct ecosystem compared to its neighboring regions and disregarding political borders. Planning for these regions is referred to as ecoregional planning. Ecoregional planning aims to achieve a balance between ecology, economy, and society, emphasizing the integration of local and human needs with environmental conservation and biodiversity. This paper is a review article conducted through qualitative research, with the goal of providing an organized perspective on ecoregional planning using a descriptive-analytical approach. In this regard, the conceptualization of this type of planning, its historical evolution, various approaches and processes in implementing this type of planning, the development and presentation of the six-dimensional ecoregional models, and the examination of case studies based on the proposed approaches and processes were conducted. The findings indicate that the success of ecoregional planning lies in taking a holistic approach towards economic, social, cultural, and environmental factors and examining the connections between these factors with a focus on ecological issues.
One of the important issues that garnered significant attention in the late 20th and early 21st centuries in developed countries was the focus on environmental problems arising from development processes and economic activities. These countries, which had been utilizing the environment as the primary source of nourishment and growth without considering environmental conservation, and solely prioritizing economic growth, began to realize from the mid-20th century that such a trajectory would lead to failure. The Industrial Revolution in the late 18th and 19th centuries magnified the visible impacts of human actions. The skies of Britain, Europe, and North America turned dark due to the smoke from coal (McCammack, 2018) . Forests were cleared for timber or charcoal production for iron smelting, and rivers became polluted by industrial effluents and waste (Daniels, 2019; Zimmerman, 1996) . Deforestation and inappropriate agricultural practices such as plowing along slopes resulted in erosion and flooding. During that period, various authors praised nature as a rejuvenating alternative for industrial society (Abdi Daneshpour, 2017; Melosi, 1993) .
During the 1960s and 1970s, social critics, futurists, feminists, and environmentalists criticized existing notions of development and proposed alternative paradigms that emphasized psychological, natural, and human values over economic profit and progress. An unofficial commission, led by the Chairman of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in 1972, issued a report warning about global threats to survival and explicitly outlined the effects of greenhouse gases and the warnings regarding the “unsustainable” growth resulting from automobile usage (Danneels, 2023; Wheeler Stephen, 2004) . Political concerns regarding the interplay between industrial development, urban expansion, and the environment intensified after World War II. The massive expansion of the petrochemical industries during the war had led to numerous pollution, toxicity, and resource depletion issues in the post-war era. In many books spanning the years 1920 to 1970, prominent urban planning critic Lewis Mumford connected large-scale urbanization, technology, and warfare, and cautioned against the hazards of technopolises where dehumanizing technologies took precedence (Wheeler Stephen, 2004) .
The emergence of urban ecology as a sub-discipline of ecology in the early 1970s was influenced by the documented human impacts on the planet and the serious environmental problems resulting from the growing size of human settlements (McCammack, 2018; Mcdonnel, 2011) . Also, it was around the 1970s that, following extensive criticisms of the processes related to environmental design, sustainable design, regional planning, and ecological planning, an environmental approach was introduced in planning as a solution to address existing problems and prevent further issues. This approach placed the environment at the center of attention and aimed to create a balance between environmental resources and development processes. During the 1970s, resource and environmental planning took center stage in planning activities, with a heightened societal concern and focus on the natural environment. These planning activities, at the supra-national, national, and local levels, involved the introduction of regulations in areas related to air and water pollution, as well as the establishment of new official institutions and voluntary environmental conservation organizations (Abdi Daneshpour, 2017; Zimmerman, 1996) .
Developing countries also became aware of the importance of the environment, albeit with a delay of about three decades compared to developed countries. This delay was due to the fact that these countries were still in the stage of development, and their focus was more on economic growth rather than environmental conservation. At the beginning of the 21st century, though the timing varied based on the level of development of each country, these countries began to experience the problems caused by excessive emphasis on economic growth (Douglas, 2013; Pourjafar & Moradi, 2015) . As a result, they followed the pattern of experience set by more developed countries and started to formulate environmental planning strategies.
Among scientific perspectives, the environmental conservation approach in planning is the only approach that, with a holistic view, is capable of comprehensively addressing the ongoing processes in the environment and analyzing the interrelationships of planning components, as well as identifying potential inconsistencies (Taghvaee, Kamyar, & Moradi, 2017) . Furthermore, it is able to apply a higher level of sensitivity in land-use planning and physical organization of the land towards protected natural areas and preserved natural spaces than ever before.
Based on these premises, the current paper is a review article that has been conducted using a qualitative approach to provide an organized perspective on the topics discussed in the field of ecoregional planning. Ecoregional planning involves the development of strategies and policies for the management and conservation of natural resources within specific ecological regions (Baldwin, Perkl, Trombulak, & Burwell, 2010) . In this regard, the article first addresses the existing definitions and concepts of ecoregional planning and related terms. It then delves into the historical evolution of conceptualizing this term and examines the current approaches and processes in this field. It also presents a classification of spatial patterns in ecoregional planning by studying two case studies. These case studies are introduced based on the examined approaches and processes. In the end, considering all the aforementioned topics, it is pointed out that ecological knowledge is comprehensive knowledge that cannot achieve success within the framework of a sectoral planning system. Ecoregional planning is successful when it is approached with a wide perspective towards economic, social, cultural, and environmental factors and by examining their relationships.
The environmental dimensions in regional planning encompass a wide range of concepts, making it difficult to provide a single unified definition. However, in this section, in order to grasp the concept of ecoregional planning, at the first step, definitions of an ecoregion and its components are presented, followed by an explanation of the concept of ecoregional planning.
If we want to have a definition of a region in this perspective, we can say that through the natural divisions of land, we can achieve a real understanding of a “region”. It can be considered as a distinct area or region characterized by specific environmental conditions, such as water mass, nutrient levels, and currents, which influence the distribution and abundance of species and ecosystems (
In addition, most ecosystems are interconnected (Bailey & Ropes, 2002; Loveland & Merchant, 2004) , which means that in ecoregional planning, the effects of ecological regions on other regions are also evaluated (
In the process of regional planning, it is possible to allocate spatial tasks or functions to each area according to its ecological capacity, and distribute the factors of development accordingly (Smith, Hendershot, Nova, & Daily, 2020) . In this context, the regional planning involves determining land use distribution, location, and placement for each function based on the ecological characteristics of the natural environment (Bahram Soltani, 2008; Bailey, 1998; Omernik, 2004) .
In explaining the concept of ecoregional planning, it could be say that the main goal of this type of planning is the balance between the ecosystem, economy, and society, where the combination of local and human needs is highlighted with environmental conservation and biodiversity perspectives. However, various articles and books have approached this concept with different perspectives, but all of them share the consideration of the region based on its natural boundaries (
The term “ecologically-oriented regional geography” was first coined by the French regional geography school. Later, this term was strengthened and refined by the works and theories of Élisée Reclus and Patrick Geddes (Noble & Costa, 1999) . In the late 19th century, Ebenezer Howard introduced the theory of “garden cities” in England (Howard, 1965) , while Geddes, in his book “Cities in Evolution” published in 1915, examined several major cities worldwide and focused on the unity of the city and its natural environment (Chabard, 2016) . Subsequently, this concept found its way to the United States and was expounded by American regional planners.
However, there is another perspective in the United States that believes the concept of ecoregional planning has deep roots in the country. The consideration of national parks and forest conservation can be regarded as the first initiatives in this regard in the United States (late 19th century), which later became a comprehensive and suitable approach in this field worldwide (Mason, 2011; Ndubisi, 2002) . Based on this, the need for actions in the field of ecoregional
| The concept of ecologically oriented regional planning | Title of book or article |
|---|---|
| Combining human and environmental needs in land use planning (McHarg, 1969) . | Design with nature |
| In this planning, the relationship between humans and nature is crucial for decision-making towards achieving balance between the ecosystem, economy, and society (Miller, 1996) . | Balancing the scales: guidelines for increasing biodiversity’s chances through bioregional management |
| This planning integrates biophysical and social information, with a focus on ecosystems, and does not rely on political boundaries as the unit of analysis (Johnson, Swanson, Herring, & Greene, 1999) . | Bioregional assessments: science at the crossroads of management and policy |
| A way to develop regional governance and provide decision-making in the context of sustainability and environmental conservation (Hodge, Hall, & Robinson, 2017) . | Planning Canadian Regions |
| Planning for the sustainable use of resources and conservation of biodiversity, simultaneously considering the “natural” environmental boundaries and local residents’ uses (Thayer, 2003) . | Life Place: Bioregional thought and practice |
| Planning in a specific ecological region where understanding and regulating the relationship between ecological, social, and physical components is necessary to achieve conservation goals at the landscape level (Bailey, 2004; Bailey & Ropes, 2002) . | Ecoregion-based design for sustainability |
| Planning for a specific region defined by natural boundaries (Mason, 2011) . | Ecoregional Planning Retreat or Reinvention |
planning dates back to the late 18th and early 19th centuries when European migration to America increased. The destruction of grasslands for agriculture and livestock became prevalent, as did the quest for gold and the subsequent human invasion of mines, resulting in disturbances to natural plant cover and the threat to biodiversity (Anderson, 2010; Bailey & Ropes, 2002) .
In the 1920s, members of the American Regional Planning Association combined the idea of “garden cities” with the aim of protecting natural resources and biodiversity to develop ecoregional planning (Miller, 2015) . This group concluded that urban expansion into the periphery posed a serious threat to the natural environment. They emphasized the importance of preserving and enhancing natural systems, stating that human life should converge with plant, animal, and aquatic communities (Daniels, 2009; Lantitsou, 2017) .
Daniels considers the period from 1920 to 1970 as the era of ecoregional planning in America, during which the use of environmental knowledge in planning became common. This knowledge was employed to conserve pristine lands, assess environmental impacts, and maintain a balance between nature and the built environment, the economy and the environment, nature conservation, public health, and the protection of natural resources were among the objectives of this era (Daniels, 2009; Wilkinson, Saarne, Peterson, & Colding, 2013) . During this period, various theorists attempted to articulate the concept of ecoregional planning. Among them, the following individuals can be mentioned:
Clarence Stein produced the first comprehensive national land use program for the United States in 1925, which called for transportation networks, settlement nodes, and rural land conservation (Parsons, 1990; Stein, 1949) . Inspired by biologist and Scottish planner Patrick Geddes, Lewis Mumford worked to advance the concept of ecoregional planning. He interpreted the region as a collection of ecological relationships among land, climate, and soils that, in turn, shape human culture (Miller, 2002; Novak Jr., 2014) . Benton MacKaye drew on Mumford’s regional ideas in his thinking, combining Mumford’s concept of ecological region with ideas about natural resource conservation and wilderness preservation (MacKaye, 1990) . He argued that sustainable economic development is connected to ecological planning, so that residents and visitors can have access to civilization and nature. McHarg also made significant strides in this direction through his writings, including the book “Design with Nature” in 1968 (Daniels, 2009, 2019; Mason, 2011) .
Over the course of this 50-year period, ecoregional planning gradually gained success, giving rise to various programs and agencies. One of the most important projects was the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) plan along the Mississippi River, which utilized forest restoration, appropriate agricultural methods, and dam construction to restore the ecological integrity of the region and promote economic development in one of the most economically deprived areas of America (Friedmann, 1956; Menhinick & Durisch, 1953) .
It can be confidently stated that the fundamental goals of these initiatives in the philosophy of ecoregional planning in America were the protection of natural resources, control of commodity flow, and environmental development (Daniels, 2009) .
From the 1970s onwards, global conferences focused on the environment were held under the auspices of the United Nations. The declarations and achievements of these conferences, signed by most countries in the world, led to the adoption of ecological policies in regional planning, especially in developing countries.
| Conferences | Achievements |
|---|---|
| The Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment, 1972 | The issuance of the Human Environment Declaration. The presentation of an action plan and 106 recommendations, all emphasizing the dependence of humans on the environment and how to shape it. The rational use of resources, pollution reduction, universal environmental education, environmental research, the establishment of international organizations, the creation of the United Nations Environmental Program, and the designation of June 5th as World Environment Day were among its achievements (Baker, 2015; Kennet, 1972) . |
| The Rio Summit, also known as Agenda 21, 1992 | It outlines how to move towards sustainable development for more/less developed countries and specifies the actions that need to be taken by the global community to reconcile development with the environment (Blowers & Evans, 1997; Desai & Potter, 2008) . |
| The World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 2002 | This conference gave rise to concepts such as sustainable lifestyles, environmentally compatible municipalities, and sustainable regions, ultimately leading to the formation of various bases for regional sustainability in administrative, economic, cultural, and national dimensions with specific environmental characteristics (Button, 2002; Hens & Nath, 2005) . |
In summary of the historical evolution, it can be said that the emergence of an ecoregional planning approach dates back to the 19th century, originating from the French school of regional planning. From the 1920s, this approach spread from the United States to other countries, and ultimately, global congresses and declarations served as complements to the goals of ecoregional planning.
There are two commonly recognized approaches to ecoregional planning. The first approach views it as a sectoral planning, while the second approach takes a trans-sectoral perspective and emphasizes the need for integrated and cohesive ecological policies.
Until the mid-1990s, urban environments were primarily managed through regulations aimed at protecting air, water, soil quality, and restricting economic activities in residential areas. However, previous studies indicate that this
“command and control” approach, which relies solely on top-down legal instruments and a set of environmental standards (sectoral approach), will not be fully effective in addressing urban environmental issues (Anderson & Allen, 2003; Campbell, 1996; Chen & Lin, 2021; Simeonova & van der Valk, 2009) .
Sectoral planning is a pattern of ecoregional planning that focuses on specific aspects of the environment affected by human activities and seeks to reduce or eliminate the negative impacts of human behavior while managing and conserving targeted environmental resources (Berke, 2015; Gama-Rodrigues, Müller, Gama-Rodrigues, & Mendes, 2021; Younge & Fowkes, 2003) . In this pattern, the interrelationships between various environmental resources and different planning initiatives are not adequately considered, and the environment is only addressed in a fragmented manner.
However, regional planning at the regional scale should move towards integrated and interdisciplinary planning. The role of environmental interdisciplinary should be strengthened and maximized to ensure that “environmental conservation” becomes rich in its true and authentic content and meets the needs and expectations of regional planning. Accordingly, the approaches and processes introduced in this article all have an interdisciplinary approach to the ecological aspect of regional planning.
Proponents of this theory believe that each specific region has its unique ecological system. In such a system, water, soil, climate, and living organisms form a unified system in which these elements have organized or systematic relationships with each other. Humans, as living beings, are part of the system in which they live and, as a result, have constructive or organic relationships with other elements. Consequently, they influence and are influenced by them (Aberley, 1999; Garibaldi, Bonnaventure, Smith, & Duchesne, 2022; Lipschutz, 2005; López González, Sandoval, & Escobar Flores, 2023; Loveland & Merchant, 2004;
| Section | Subsection |
|---|---|
| Planning for Sustainable Public Health | Planning for Sustainable Water Resources Planning for Sustainable Water Quality Planning for Sustainable Air Quality Planning for Solid Waste and Recycling Planning for Hazardous Materials and Toxic Waste |
| Planning for Natural Areas | Preservation of Scenic Reserves Planning for Wildlife Habitats Planning and Management of Wetlands Coastal Area Management Planning for Natural Disasters and Emergencies |
| Planning for Active Landscapes | Planning for Sustainable Active Landscapes: Agricultural Lands and Pastures Planning for Sustainable Active Landscapes: Forests Mining Planning |
| Planning for Human-Built Environment | Transportation and Environmental Planning Energy Planning Planning for Sustainable Human-Built Environment Planning for Sustainable Human-Built Environment: Green Space Development and Design |
McGinnis, 1999) . Civil society, within the regional ecological context, proposes this approach to achieve development, which is accompanied by preserving ecological relationships, a spirit of social cooperation, and the integration of material and spiritual needs.
The theorists argue that the ecosystem should be regarded as a holistic entity characterized by a perpetual and reciprocal relationship between the environment and living organisms. In this context, the environment directly or indirectly constrains the growth of every organism (McGinnis, 1999; Olstad, 2012) . Consequently, each ecosystem possesses the capacity to accommodate a limited number of human beings, which is commonly referred to as carrying capacity.
In the literature related to the methodology of sustainable development, there is a consensus on the concept of sustainability. This consensus acknowledges that sustainable development encompasses three dimensions: social, economic, and environmental. Today, we encounter two different models of sustainable development, which are of great importance in sustainable regional development. The first model defines sustainability within the three corners of a triangle, and the second model portrays sustainability as an egg (
The triangular model, defined by Serageldin (1995) , harmonizes environmental, social, and economic goals in three corners of a triangle without hierarchical relationships between them (Serageldin, 1995) . The Egg Model signifies a close interdependence among these dimensions. Here, the environmental domain encompasses the economic and social domains. In this model, the economy is defined as a subsystem of society, and consequently, society operates within the lower sphere of environmental implementation.
While the triangular model can lead to separate definitions of environmental, social, and economic goals, the Egg Model necessitates the inclusion of sustainability indicators and social goals within the environmental perimeter, while the economy, as a subset of society, requires a focus on social goals as a framework for its own specific objectives. If we understand the following statement regarding regional planning: “Regional planning, in retrospect, has been responsive to national and local shortcomings, and in the present context, it needs to address the needs of future generations. According to studies conducted in this field, the link between local and national interests can only be effective and feasible at the regional level, as regional planning is a multidimensional endeavor that can contribute to the realization of sustainable development at the regional level” (Sarafi, 1998) .
Given the comprehensive nature of regional planning, the Egg Model is an appropriate model for sustainable regional planning. Regional planning, in which planning aligns with environmental and natural capacities, is nothing but sustainable development.
Considering the aforementioned definitions, the essential question now arises as to what specific processes must be undertaken in regional planning to achieve sustainable regional development. The answer is that for sustainable development, three fundamental and important objectives should be included in the agenda of regional planning:
• Conservation of valuable natural resources
• Balanced and appropriate utilization of natural resources
• Suitable economic and social mechanisms (Kidd, 2005; Peng, Wang, Wu, Shen, & Pan, 2011) .
In this process, the stages of planning for determining suitable locations for human development activities or organizing the existing situation are carried out in
| Approach | Dimensions | Variables | Component | Indicator | Regional Spatial Pattern | Case Studies | Analysis Tools | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bioregionalism | Ecological Morphological | Culture Society Environment | Ecosystem Restoration Resilience to Ecosystem Destruction | Population Biological Species Natural Factors Human Factors | Palouse Region in Washington | Geospatial Data Assessment Ecological Carrying Capacity Development Impact Assessment | (Klein et al., 2015; Pierson & Mulla, 1990) | |
| Regional Sustainable Development | Economic Social Environmental | Social Justice Economic Development Environmental Sustainability Environmental Conservation/ Protection | Economic Efficiency Environmental Quality Equitable Distribution of Services | Social Capacity Land Use Quality Equal Access Opportunity Economic Competitiveness | Tennessee Valley | Factor Analysis Taxonomy Ecological Footprint | (Mason, 2011; Steiner & Steiner, 2016) |
four stages (Chan, Shaw, Cameron, Underwood, & Daily, 2006; Zonneveld, 1995) . In this regard, the identification of ecological resources is performed by providing physical and biophysical resource maps and using GIS tools. In the next stage, the analysis and evaluation of ecological potential are usually carried out using a parametric approach, which includes techniques such as one-way matrix and AHP, or the use of specific models such as the Makhdoum model1 for analysis in this stage. The next stage involves socioeconomic studies and estimation of socioeconomic needs, which includes the classification of socioeconomic information, analysis and summarization of socioeconomic information, and the preparation of a list of permissible land uses from an economic and social perspective. In the final stage, the organization of land uses takes place, where prioritization between land uses and achieving the objectives of land uses is determined.
Nowadays, the increase of human activities has caused structural disturbances, including the fragmentation of the land and natural habitats. Following this, the use of ecological concepts at the landscape scale for land use policies and design has evolved from isolation to connectivity and from site protection to the conservation of ecological networks. Thus, the concept of landscape ecology emerged by merging ecological sciences with spatial patterns in the framework of environmental planning and implementation, and concepts such as ecological network design received increased attention. The first book on landscape ecology was presented in 1986 by Forman and Godron (Bastian & Steinhardt, 2002; Beita & Murillo, 2020; Farina, 2000; Turner, 2005a, 2005b; Turner, Gardner, O’neill, & O’Neill, 2001) . Accordingly, the landscape’s appearance is a distinct and measurable unit that is formed by interacting ecosystems that are spatially repeatable and arise due to the interactions of air, water, soil, altitude, fauna, plants, and humans (Forman & Gordon, 1986; Hou, Zhai, & Walz, 2023; Jongman & Pungetti, 2004) . The main elements of landscape appearance include substrate, patch, and corridor, as shown in
This process emphasizes four patterns for sustainable land character planning.
A: Preservation of large patches of natural vegetation cover.
B: Preservation of wide riparian corridors.
C: Maintaining connectivity for movement of key species among large patches.
D: Preserving heterogeneous natural elements within developed human areas (McGarigal & Marks, 1995) .
In
Based on various articles and different theories, spatial patterns in ecoregional planning can be divided into six categories, as outlined in
The aim of this study was to establish a framework for conserving the North Talgras ecoregion and propose the necessary strategies for its preservation, utilizing geographic information system (GIS) analysis as a tool. The location of the North Talgras Ecoregion on the United States map is shown in
The research was conducted in three stages, as illustrated in
Stage 1: Evaluation was undertaken to identify conservation objectives, establish survival guidelines, and gather the necessary baseline data for designing exemplary projects. The process of this stage is depicted in
| Process | Dimensions | Variables | Component | Indicator | Regional Spatial Pattern Model | Case Studies | Analysis Tools |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Land Ecology | Ecological Economic | Physical/Urban Design Agriculture Compatibility/ Adaptation | Ecological Capacity Ecological Resources Economic Needs | Groundwater Surface Water Soil Type Plant Species Native Animals Terrain/Topography Urban Development Agricultural Development | Tallegrass Valley Regional Planning | Remote Sensing Geographic Information System (GIS) Landscape | |
| Landscape Ecology | Ecological | Physical/Urban Design Mobility/ Transportation Ecological Network Ecological Connectivity Ecosystem Conservation/ Preservation | Core Area Patch Corridor | Forest Development Native Plant Species Dominant Plant Species Natural Rivers Coastal Areas Protected Areas Cultural Zones | Florida Ecological Network Model | Metrics Geographic Information System (GIS) Graph Model Gradient Analysis |
| Title | Sample | Spatial Crystallization | Approach and Supporting Process | Spatial Pattern Representation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Containment | Greenbelt (Ahern, 1999) | Ecological Boundaries | Sustainable Development, Landscape Ecology | |
| Framework | Future of Riverine Edge Areas (Forman, 1990a) | Ecological Corridors | Bioregionalism, Landscape Ecology | |
| Laissez faire | Sprawl in Edge Areas (Ahern, 1999) | Edge of Areas | Landscape Ecology | |
| Grid | Land Survey Laws in the United States in 1785 (Forman, 1990b) | Ecological Spatial Justice | Land Ecology | |
| Interdigitating | Relationship between Ecosystem and Governance (Forman, 1990b) | Coexistence and Interdependence | Sustainable Development, Landscape Ecology | |
| Network | Ecological Network (De Montis et al., 2016) | Centers and Ecological Valleys | Sustainable Development, Landscape Ecology |
Stage 2: The design process aimed to prioritize a set of sites that possess more effective and sustainable ecoregion segmentation and biodiversity conservation. This stage entailed developing and adopting a process for designing exemplary projects. Scientific insights provided crucial foundations for the design of these projects, ensuring the preservation of species and communities. Additionally, this stage involved prioritizing the sample sites for conservation actions. Based on the prioritization of objectives established in the previous stage, the positioning, connectivity, and representation of each objective within the targeted ecoregion were examined, utilizing GIS data, to determine suitable sites for conservation (Prairie & Team, 2000) .
Stage 3: Implementation, in its truest sense, refers to the execution of a practical plan aimed at addressing long-term biodiversity conservation in the ecoregion and prioritizing and bridging data gaps for future crises (Prairie & Team, 2000) . In this stage, based on the analysis of the conservation sites identified in the previous stage, each site is prioritized for conservation. The findings of this research are presented in
The Florida Ecological Network Model is a decision support model that uses land-use data and information on significant ecological areas to identify larger areas of ecological priority and potential ecological linkages in Florida (Hoctor, Carr, & Zwick, 2000) . It was designed with the objective of establishing a system of landscapes and ecosystems that support native plant and animal species, preserve clean air, water, fisheries, and other natural resources, and maintain the scenic beauty of the region. Geographic Information System (GIS) tools were utilized for the design process. Factors such as soil type, water and geological information, wildlife habitats, and ecological data were examined and analyzed, along with pedestrian pathways, parks, transportation, infrastructure facilities, educational and historical sites, and political boundaries. In this regard, the University of Florida and the Environmental Conservation Group played a crucial role in developing this ecological network. Key elements shaping this network included important and vital habitats for native species, significant environmental communities, wetlands, floodplains, and important aquatic ecosystems (Dixon et al., 2006; Hoctor et al., 2000; Larkin, Maehr, Hoctor, Orlando, & Whitney, 2004; Meegan & Maehr, 2002; Trias & Garcia-Zamor, 2015) .
The overall process of designing the Florida Ecological Network is illustrated in
After analyzing the ecological network through decomposition and overall analysis of the mentioned layers based on spatial distribution metrics and patch diversity, practical solutions were proposed for network issues such as uneven distribution of patches, lack of connectivity and continuity, absence of large patches and essential patterns, fragmentation of patches, etc., based on the objectives and the ecological landscape process. The solutions are as follows:
• Identifying and preserving the integrity of the ecological network at the state level in Florida, which includes a wide range of Florida’s ecosystems and landscapes.
• Identifying the cultural and historical network of Florida and considering its overlap with the ecological network.
• Utilizing Florida’s rivers, springs, lakes, and surface waters as strategic blocks of the state’s ecological network.
• Linking a wide range of regional landscapes, including public lands, private-owned natural ecosystems, forests, and agricultural lands, in the state’s ecological network.
• Restoring and establishing connections between native ecological systems and their interrelationships.
• Preserving the evolutionary potential of ecosystem components to adapt to future environmental changes (Anderson, Hilbert, & Lewis, 2009; Hoctor et al., 2000) .
It is safe to say that the need to change the planning system at different levels is not only for the sake of protecting the environment. Basically, since the Rio conference, there has been a shift in the planning pattern, and the acceptance of the sustainable development template by a large number of European countries is a clear sign of this shift in the planning model.
The goal of regional planning is to address injustices and imbalances between regions. To achieve this goal, regional planning has undergone theoretical developments, leading to its greater universality and comprehensiveness. These developments have resulted in significant changes, to the extent that some researchers have referred to a paradigm shift in regional planning. This type of development, which is more prevalent in developing and underdeveloped countries, has led to adverse consequences such as the destruction of natural resources, forests, and pastures in human communities. This type of development is called as sustainable growth. The traditional form of regional development, due to its excessive focus on economic aspects and economic viability, has faced challenges. Alongside social inequalities, the awareness of the ecological impacts and environmental problems caused by existing patterns has prompted regional forms of development to actively seek ways to be more environmentally sustainable. Based on this, recognizing the environmental dimensions in regional planning became necessary, and in the late second half of the twentieth century, attention to these dimensions in the planning process was felt.
However, achieving an ecologically-oriented perspective in regional planning is the most important objective of this planning, which is addressed through approaches such as bioregionalism and sustainable development. The discourse on
| Case Study Title | Objective | Approach and Process | Achievement |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ecoregional Planning for North Talcgrass Prairie, America | Achieving the Conservation Framework for North Talcgrass Prairie Ecological Area | Bioregionalism, Ecological Landscaping | Prioritizing Conservation Sites |
| Ecological Network Model of Florida | Providing an Ecological Network System of Landscape and Ecosystems in the Region based on Cultural, Social, and Economic Issues | Sustainable Development, Ecological Landscaping | Offering Practical Solutions to Achieve an Ecological Network considering Social, Cultural, and Economic Connections |
sustainable regional development emphasizes that ecological policies alone cannot prevent or solve environmental issues in regions. In order to reduce the ecological issues caused by economic activities and ensure a high quality of life in cities, ecological policies must be integrated with other policy sectors, and this is the essence of the transformative perspective.
Environmental conservation, alongside social, economic, and cultural sectors, has gained its appropriate position in the planning system. This way, it moves away from a passive state and becomes an active force throughout the planning process. It seems that one of the tools to achieve this objective is the use of strategic environmental assessment, starting from the stage of setting goals and designing national-level programs.
Ecoregional planning is a holistic approach to land use planning that seeks to balance ecological, social, and economic goals. It recognizes the importance of ecosystem services and biodiversity, and seeks to ensure that land use decisions are informed by the best available science. Ecoregional planning recognizes the importance of ecosystem services, such as clean water, air, and soil, as well as biodiversity and cultural values. These services can be incorporated into land use planning decisions to ensure that they are protected and maintained. Also, it recognizes that ecosystems are complex and dynamic, and that land use decisions may need to be revised over time. Adaptive management involves monitoring and evaluating the impacts of land use decisions and making adjustments as needed to ensure that ecological and social goals are being met.
Ecoregional planning is a process of identifying and managing natural resources within a specific geographic area to achieve ecological and socioeconomic goals. The main contribution of ecoregional planning is the integration of ecological, social, and economic factors to manage natural resources and promote sustainable conservation. This approach is significant, because it helps to address complex environmental challenges, such as habitat loss, climate change, and biodiversity conservation, by considering the unique characteristics of different ecoregions and the interconnectedness of natural systems. Ecoregional planning also provides a framework for collaboration among various stakeholders, including government agencies, non-profit organizations, and local communities, to work together towards common conservation and development objectives. The presentation of ecoregional planning should consider protected areas, existing conservation programs, national and regional plans, attention to public and private lands, and the natural, economic, and socio-cultural capacities of the target region. In this regard, it can confidently be stated that ecological knowledge is a transdisciplinary knowledge that cannot succeed within the framework of a compartmentalized planning system.
We thank Dr. Hashem Dadashpour from Tarbiat Modares University, for comments that greatly improved the manuscript.
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.
Moradi, A., & Rahmati, S. (2023). Ecoregional Planning: An Overview of Concepts and Approaches. Current Urban Studies, 11, 682-707. https://doi.org/10.4236/cus.2023.114035