The Far-North region of Cameroon, which is part of the Sudanian-Sahelian zone, is situated between 10˚ and 13˚ North latitude and between 13˚ and 16˚ East longitude. It has a triangular shape, bordered to the north by Lake Chad, to the south by the North region, to the east by the Republic of Chad, and to the west by the Republic of Nigeria (Figure 1). Maroua serves as the capital of the Far-North region, which is further divided into six departments: Diamaré, Logone and Chari, Mayo Danay, Mayo Kani, Mayo Sava, and Mayo Tsanaga. Our study was conducted in the localities of Maroua, Kousseri, Yagoua, Kaélé, Mokolo, and Mora.

The Sudanian-Sahelian zone of the Far-North is characterized by a Sudanian-Sahelian tropical climate, which, according to Suchel (1987) , is divided into

two distinct seasons. The first season is a prolonged dry season lasting approximately seven months, starting in October and extending through April, followed by a shorter rainy season that begins in late April and ends in early October. Rainfall varies from 400 to 1050 mm annually, with an average of 244.7 mm per year according to L’hote (2000) . Regarding temperatures, they decrease from north to south and vary with the seasons and localities, with an average temperature of 27.6˚C in Maroua-Salak. The hottest months are March (39˚C) and April (37˚C), while the coldest months are January (33˚C) and December (33.5˚C).

The selection of localities and households surveyed is based on several criteria. Consequently, all six (6) departments of the Far-North region were chosen for field surveys. The selection of localities was not only based on the size of agricultural households but also took into account the intensity of agricultural activities in these areas. Accessibility and the level of community involvement in agricultural activities were also crucial factors for this selection. Only heads of households were investigated. The selection of individuals surveyed was based on at least one of the non-cumulative criteria, namely age (being at least 30 years old), residency duration in the locality (having resided in the locality for at least ten (10) years before the survey), and involvement in agriculture (being an agricultural producer). In total, 600 individuals were surveyed, with 100 in each of the following departments: Mayo Danay, Mayo Kani, Diamaré, Mayo Tsanaga, Mayo Sava, and Logone et Chari.

In order to conduct this research effectively, we have chosen to adopt a hypothetico-deductive approach. This methodology involves formulating hypotheses based on a theoretical framework, which is then subjected to empirical verification using a questionnaire. Two (2) methodological axes were used: a documentary analysis to identify and define the various aspects of the agriculture-environment-sustainable development concept, and a primary analysis based on a questionnaire where we collected the necessary information for empirical analysis from farmers. The samples for our study consist of individuals whose primary activity is agriculture. The sampling method used is random, using a convenience sample. Our target includes farmers with more than 5 years of farming experience. We have decided to limit the number of respondents to 100 per department, considering that these farmers tend to periodically move in search of fertile land. Therefore, we have opted for a snowball sampling approach since not all farmers are easily identifiable. The operators identified with the help of traditional leaders will help us connect with others. To carry out our study, we developed and administered a questionnaire. This questionnaire is a quantitative data collection instrument composed of four distinct parts: respondent identification, their knowledge of local producers’ farming practices, their knowledge of yield variations and soil types, as well as their level of soil degradation and potential sustainable soil restoration techniques.

The collected data were entered and organized using Microsoft Excel 2016. Descriptive statistics (frequencies and means) were used to establish the environmental and agricultural characteristics of the soil, soil degradation indicators, the main causes of soil degradation, and sustainable soil management practices in the Sudanian-Sahelian zone of Cameroon using the S.P.S.S. (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) software. Spearman correlation coefficients calculated at a 5% threshold were used to understand the relationships between various variables.

Table 1 below highlights the environmental and agricultural characteristics as well as vulnerability to degradation in the Sudanian-Sahelian zone of Cameroon. The table reveals that the Far-North region of Cameroon experiences a dry climate characterized by relatively low annual precipitation levels. This persistent arid condition can have significant repercussions on the availability of water required for plants and soil regeneration processes. Due to the prevalence of climatic aridity, the region is vulnerable to both wind and water erosion. These erosion types can lead to soil structure deterioration and the loss of the top fertile soil layer. This vulnerability is exacerbated by extreme weather conditions, including extended periods of drought that weaken ecosystem resilience, and sudden flooding episodes that can erode and carry away exposed soil. The capacity of ecosystems to maintain soil fertility and resist degradation is compromised. Plants that manage to survive in these conditions are often specialized to

tolerate periods of drought and less fertile soils. This situation can have a ripple effect on the entire food chain and ecological interactions, with potential consequences for the sustainability and resilience of the local environment.

The soils typically have shallow depths, resulting from pronounced leaching and displaying a combination of sandy and clay textures. These soils are particularly sensitive to acidification and are characterized by low nutrient and organic matter content. Drought, flooding, and the significant pressure exerted by farmers contribute to the rapid erosion of soils, making them more vulnerable to degradation. The direct consequences of soil degradation include a noticeable reduction in biodiversity, increased soil erosion, and a significant decrease in agricultural productivity. These negative environmental impacts lead to biodiversity loss and contribute to land desertification. Additionally, they affect the livelihoods of local populations, who heavily depend on agriculture for their economic well-being. Furthermore, the region’s food security is compromised as soil degradation reduces the region’s capacity to produce enough food to meet the growing needs of its population.

Agriculture is particularly influenced by the inherent fragility and vulnerability of soils to degradation. The agricultural situation is strongly marked by significant environmental pressures resulting from a convergence of complex factors such as climate, topography, agricultural practices, and population growth. The increased pressure exerted by farmers on these already vulnerable lands further exacerbates the issue, leading to rapid soil erosion. Nevertheless, the adoption of traditional farming practices, based on the use of rudimentary techniques, can help mitigate soil degradation. These techniques only allow farmers to produce sufficient food to meet the needs of their families and communities. However, the introduction of modern agricultural practices, based on the use of more sophisticated tools and techniques to maximize agricultural production, has increased pressure on the soil. Farmers use chemical fertilizers and pesticides to boost agricultural production. These techniques enable farmers to produce larger quantities of food, but they also have a negative impact on the environment.

Soil degradation is a phenomenon that affects soil fertility, biodiversity, and land productivity, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. It is a process that results in a loss of soil fertility, structure, and productivity, requiring a multi-sectoral approach to its management. Several criteria are used by farmers to determine soil degradation indicators in the Far-North region of Cameroon (Table 2).

In total, farmers use 11 criteria (Figure 2) to determine soil degradation indicators in the Sudanian-Sahelian zone of Cameroon. These criteria encompass physical characteristics related to topography, texture, permeability, color, and depth of the arable layer, biological aspects centered on root abundance, soil fauna, presence of bioindicator plants, and agricultural factors related to plant

growth and crop yields. The combination of these criteria has led farmers to distinguish five soil degradation indicators: soil erosion, decreased soil fertility, reduced biodiversity, loss of vegetation cover, and desertification.

The criteria most frequently used by farmers to assess soil degradation in the Sudanian-Sahelian zone of Cameroon are agricultural yield, bioindicator plants, and plant growth, with percentages of 96%, 91%, and 81% respectively. These criteria play a crucial role in how farmers measure and evaluate changes in soil quality and fertility. Similarly, other factors are also considered important by farmers in determining soil degradation indicators in this region. Soil fauna at 76.66%, root abundance (73.00%), and the duration for which the lands are exploited (64.66%) are also crucial elements for assessing soil conditions. Among the physical soil criteria, texture at 55.33% and permeability at 54.66% influence the soil’s ability to retain water and nutrients, which is crucial for crop health and productivity. However, it is worth noting that some criteria have relatively less weight in determining these indicators for farmers. Soil color is considered with a percentage of 37.33%, suggesting that it is less systematically used to judge soil degradation. Furthermore, the depth of the arable layer, i.e., the depth at which plants can root, and the terrain’s topography have respective percentages of 17.66% and 15.66% and are therefore less predominant in farmers’ considerations for evaluating soil degradation.

An analysis of the correlation matrix (Table 3) of soil degradation indicators has shown that agricultural yield is positively correlated with plant growth, root abundance, exploitation duration, soil texture, and the depth of the arable layer. Bioindicator plants are strongly correlated with plant growth, soil fauna, root abundance, exploitation duration, soil texture, and the depth of the arable layer. Soil permeability is weakly correlated with the other variables, showing moderate positive correlations with soil texture and soil color. Topography is weakly correlated with most other variables, except for the depth of the arable layer, with which it has a moderate negative correlation.

Soil degradation in the Sudanian-Sahelian zone results from several interdependent factors that have significant implications for ecological balance and ecosystem sustainability. Figure 3 illustrates the primary causes of soil degradation in the Far-North region of Cameroon. Farmers assert that deforestation, which is the leading cause, is responsible for the degradation of nearly all soils (91.83%)

***Significant at p < 0.05***.

with devastating consequences on fertility, biodiversity, and flooding of riparian areas. Intensive agriculture, accounting for 84.66% of degraded soils, emerges as the second cause, driven by the growing demand for food.

The use of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides, identified in 53.5% of cases, significantly impacts groundwater and aquifers, as well as beneficial soil organisms, such as earthworms and bacteria. Overgrazing, excessive pressure from livestock on pastures, represents 45.50% of cases. It reduces soil regeneration capacity and increases vulnerability to erosion. Finally, the increasingly noticeable climate changes in the region account for 40.66% of cases of this phenomenon. It leads to an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as droughts, floods, and storms.

The correlation matrix between various factors that could impact deforestation (Table 4) shows that deforestation is strongly correlated with intensive agriculture (0.22) and fertilizer and pesticides (0.26). Intensive agriculture and the use of fertilizers and pesticides are highly correlated with each other (0.74), overgrazing has a strong correlation with intensive agriculture (0.79) and fertilizer and pesticides (0.82), and climate change exhibits a negative correlation with intensive agriculture (−0.58) and a weak correlation with fertilizers and pesticides (−0.16).

Soil degradation in the Sudano-Sahelian region of Far-North Cameroon has significant consequences, both at the physical and socio-economic levels, directly affecting the local population. Our analysis results (Figure 4) reveal that the most frequently mentioned physical consequence by farmers is the loss of soil fertility, with an alarming percentage of 92.09%. This loss of fertility leads to a decline in agricultural yields, directly impacting the food security of the population. The second most commonly observed consequence is the decrease in agricultural yields, which results directly from the loss of soil fertility, cited in over 91.43% of cases by the farmers. Other important physical consequences include

***Significant at p < 0.05***.

the loss of vegetation cover (78.44%), a decrease in biodiversity (76.25%), and deforestation (74.12%). Water pollution (65.57%), erosion (58.77%), and vulnerability to climate variations (57.83%) are also significant challenges in the region. In addition to these physical consequences, farmers have identified socio-economic consequences that have a substantial impact on the lives of local populations. These consequences include income loss (67.14%), food insecurity (64.07%), conflicts related to land resources (54.09%), and rural migration (44.92%).

The correlation matrix between different consequences of soil degradation (Table 5) indicates that crop rotation is strongly correlated with organic fertilization and agroforestry. Conservation agriculture, on the other hand, has a weak correlation with the other practices. Intercropping is moderately correlated with contour farming and water management. Fallow lands are moderately negatively correlated with reforestation. Finally, water management is strongly correlated with intercropping, agroforestry, contour farming, and reforestation.

***Significant at p < 0.05***.

The analysis of the survey results reveals that in the Far-North Region of Cameroon, farmers employ sustainable soil management strategies (Figure 5). These strategies are designed to preserve, maintain, and enhance the valuable soil and water resources while ensuring sustainable development and food security for the region. Crop rotation emerges as a predominant management method, adopted on a large scale (90.66%). This technique, rooted in tradition, involves the implementation of various crop combinations to orchestrate successive cycles (such as millet-sorghum-cowpea, maize-cowpea-peanut, cotton-maize-cowpea…). Crop association, practiced in about 77% of cases, proves to be a proven strategy to maximize the judicious use of natural resources and increase agricultural productivity.

In parallel, fallow land plays a crucial role in the sustainable preservation of soils, given the environmental and agricultural characteristics specific to the region. It stands out as an ancient practice, having been adopted in 67.66% of cases by farmers. Additionally, organic fertilization, mainly through the use of organic manure and cow dung, is a significant method implemented in 49.33% of situations to preserve soil quality. Furthermore, conservation agriculture (39%), agroforestry (35.33%), contour farming (31.33%), and reforestation (28.66%) are also among the methods frequently adopted by growers to optimize the use of agricultural lands. Alongside these commonly used practices, other approaches such as water management, mulching, and vegetative cover, as well as the use of soil-improving plants, are implemented at respective rates of 24.33%, 8.33%, and 5.66%. It is important to note that the use of soil-improving plants represents an innovative technique currently being popularized through institutions such as

the Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD), the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, as well as various interest groups and non-governmental organizations.

The correlation matrix among the different variables related to soil degradation (Table 6) shows that most of the variables are positively correlated, meaning they increase or decrease together. For example, fertility loss is strongly correlated with loss of vegetation cover, loss of biodiversity, and erosion. This means that these factors all contribute to soil degradation. However, some variables are also negatively correlated, indicating that they increase or decrease in opposite directions. For instance, vulnerability to climate change is negatively correlated with fertility loss. This means that more fertile soils are less vulnerable to the effects of climate change.

The Far-North Region of Cameroon is part of arid and semi-arid zones. This area is facing land degradation due to various factors. Among these factors are climate variations, including persistent drought and sudden flooding episodes, as well as human activities that have a significant impact on the availability of water required for plants and soil regeneration processes. As a result, the ecosystems’ ability to maintain soil fertility and resist degradation would become increasingly challenging. These phenomena have also been observed by Tchindjang et al. (2015) and Mariel et al. (2022) in the Sudan-Sahelian zone of Cameroon and in Madagascar, respectively. It appears that plant species that manage to survive in these conditions are generally those that tolerate periods of drought and less fertile soils. This situation could have significant impacts on the entire

***Significant at p < 0.05***.

food chain and ecological interactions, with potential repercussions on the sustainability and resilience of the local environment (Jiagho & Banoho, 2021; Njoya et al., 2022) .

Agriculture, as a human activity, is inherently linked to soil characteristics. These characteristics, in turn, are influenced by various factors such as climate, topography, biodiversity, and human actions (Njouenwet et al., 2021) . Agricultural practices can encompass both traditional and modern methods, each with their own advantages and disadvantages in terms of their impact on the environment and agriculture (Coulibaly et al., 2019) . It is essential to adopt sustainable land management practices to preserve soil functions and ecosystem services (Koguia et al., 2021; Chimi et al., 2022) . These practices may include actions such as improving vegetative cover, combating erosion, conserving water and nutrients, rehabilitating degraded soils, diversifying crops, and adopting agroforestry. These findings are consistent with the conclusions of Njoya et al. (2022) in the Far-North Region of Cameroon.

Furthermore, our study highlights the potential of these approaches to enhance the adaptive capacity of local populations to climate change. This could result in increased agricultural productivity, reduced water scarcity risks, soil degradation mitigation, and improved food security. These observations are also supported by the research of Tendonkeng et al. (2021) in the North-West region of Cameroon and by the work of Zakari et al. (2022) in the Sahelian region of Nigeria.

Farmers have developed local knowledge and endogenous indicators to assess and manage soil health in their region. These indicators are based on physical, biological, and agricultural criteria that reflect soil properties and functions (M’Biandoun & Bassalan, 2007; Seibou et al., 2021) . The empirical and pragmatic knowledge of farmers for evaluating signs of soil degradation is founded on their observations and experiences. They are capable of recognizing natural variations and adapting their agricultural practices accordingly (M’Biandoun & Bassala, 2007; Manssour et al., 2021) .

In the Extreme-North region of Cameroon, farmers primarily rely on agricultural yield, the presence of bioindicator plants, plant growth, soil fauna, root abundance, and land use duration to determine soil degradation indicators. These indicators would be considered as direct signs of soil quality and performance (M’Biandoun & Bassala 2007; Kome et al., 2018) . Similarly, the findings of Manssour et al. (2021) in Eastern Niger highlight that, in addition to these indicators, soil color, depth of the arable layer, and terrain topography are crucial indicators for identifying soil degradation. These empirical and pragmatic farmer knowledge, based on their observations and experiences, enable them to recognize natural variations and adapt their agricultural practices accordingly (M’Biandoun & Olina, 2006; Manssour et al., 2021) .

In addition to the above, farmers’ endogenous indicators can be complemented by exogenous indicators derived from scientific research, such as physico-chemical or biological soil analyses, erosion or salinization measurements, or simulation and mapping models, to enhance sustainable land management, as suggested by Sawadogo et al. (2020) . A participative and integrated approach that combines local and scientific knowledge could contribute to a better understanding and management of soils in the Sudanian-Sahelian region of Cameroon while fostering dialogue and learning among various stakeholders involved in the fight against soil degradation, including farmers, researchers, development agents, and policymakers (Mariel et al., 2022) .

Soil degradation represents a major environmental issue with significant implications for ecosystem sustainability and food security, particularly in the Sudano-Sahelian region (Moksia et al., 2019; Njoya et al., 2022) . It is evident in this study, as well as in those by Victor et al. (2019) and Zeng et al. (2023) , that the primary cause of soil degradation is deforestation. This deforestation would expose the soils to erosion, resulting in fertility loss, biodiversity destruction, and increased flood risks. Another significant cause of soil degradation is intensive agriculture. Cultivating the same piece of land over an extended period is considered a substantial contributor to soil degradation by farmers, leading to fertility loss and soil compaction, making them more susceptible to erosion. These findings align with the work of Taïda (2016) and Njoya et al. (2022) . Additionally, the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides serves as another source of soil degradation. Chemical fertilizers can acidify soils, pollute groundwater and aquifers, while pesticides can harm beneficial soil organisms such as earthworms, as demonstrated in the results of Sidsi et al. (2022) . On the other hand, overgrazing and climate change are causes of soil degradation beyond the control of producers in our study area. Overgrazing involves maintaining an excessive number of livestock on the same piece of land, contributing to soil degradation by causing vegetation loss, which plays a protective role against erosion, and leading to soil compaction, as confirmed in the studies of Mbaiyetom et al. (2020) and Njoya et al. (2022) . Climate change, characterized by an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and storms, could also exacerbate soil degradation. These meteorological events could erode the soil and result in fertility loss. Noumbissié (2019) and Ayanlade et al. (2022) argue that extreme weather events are primarily caused by climate change.

Soil degradation in the Sudano-Sahelian region of the Far North of Cameroon has significant socio-environmental repercussions (Hinimbio et al., 2018; Wangbé et al., 2022) . Indeed, the loss of soil fertility can primarily be attributed to the reduction of organic matter, nutrients, and water in these soils. Organic matter plays a crucial role in soil development, preservation of soil properties, and its functions in agriculture, forestry, and the environment. When the organic matter content in the soil becomes insufficient, the soil becomes impoverished, resulting in, among other consequences, reduced fertility and increased vulnerability to erosion, a finding also corroborated by Somda et al. (2022) . Similarly, the decrease in agricultural yields is a direct result of soil fertility loss (Schlecht et al., 2006) . In the same vein, Kenfack Essougong et al. (2020) state that the reduction in vegetation cover and loss of biodiversity are attributable to excessive soil exploitation, the use of fertilizers and pesticides, deforestation, and other factors contributing to degradation and increased erosion. Furthermore, our sampled producers claim that deforestation, driven by human actions to expand agricultural lands and pastures, is responsible for the reduction in vegetation cover and soil biodiversity (Bado & Bationo, 2018; Azare et al., 2020) . Moreover, water pollution could be attributed to the intensive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides (Kate et al., 2016; Bado & Bationo, 2018; Onyekuru et al., 2023) . These products contain elements that can persist in the soil or be carried by rainfall to groundwater or water bodies or transferred to plants, animals, and humans (Diop et al., 2022; Akanmu et al., 2023) . Loss of income, food insecurity, conflicts related to land access, and rural migration are attributed to several factors, including recurrent drought, demographic pressure leading to increased competition for land and resources (Kodji et al., 2021; Caillault & Marie, 2023) .

The sustainable management of agricultural land is of critical importance for ensuring food security and preserving the environment, especially in the Sudano-Sahelian region. This region faces various challenges such as soil degradation, climate change, and population pressure (Taïda, 2016; Njoya et al., 2022; Balgah et al., 2023) . To address these issues, local farmers have developed and adopted four main agricultural practices focused on sustainable land management, aiming to optimize the use of natural resources. Among these practices, crop rotation is widely used, allowing for a planned alternation of different plant species on the same plot. The findings of Wangbé et al. (2022) confirm that this approach disrupts the cycle of pests, diversifies crops, reduces dependence on chemicals, and improves soil fertility through nutrient recycling. Another strategy adopted by producers is crop association, which appears to enhance soil health, increase yields, preserve biodiversity, and enhance resilience to changing conditions. Our results align with those of Roose et al. (2017) and Wangbé et al. (2022) , who emphasize the numerous benefits of crop association, including higher productivity per unit area, reduced risks of crop loss, positive interactions between plants, and enrichment of biodiversity.

Furthermore, fallowing is a strategy commonly employed by a large number of farmers in the region. This practice is known for its advantages, as highlighted by the research of (Boukeng et al., 2023) . According to their findings, fallowing restores soil fertility through the accumulation of organic matter and the regeneration of native flora. Additionally, it limits erosion, nutrient leaching, pest pressure, and promotes biodiversity. Farmers also use organic fertilization to improve soil structure, enrich nutrients, and stimulate microbial life, while reducing greenhouse gas emissions, as evidenced by the studies of Roose et al. (2017) and Wangbé et al. (2022) .

Moreover, practices such as agroforestry, conservation agriculture, contour farming, cover cropping, and the introduction of beneficial plants are less commonly used among producers in our study area. However, research by scholars such as (Roose et al., 2017; Sissoko et al., 2020; Wangbé et al, 2022; Oku et al., 2021; Njoya et al, 2022) support the importance of these practices in soil management and highlight their numerous benefits for both producers and biodiversity.