Briefly the following are the benefits of e-government services; The anti-corruption nature of e-government is gradually lauded as one of the most important benefits of e-government implementation. Scholars such as, [14] [15] concluded that the implementation of e-government systems minimizes the prospects of corruption and increases citizens’ trust in the governments of developing countries. E-government could be a formidable tool in the fight against corruption [15] to enhance government institutions’ transparency. Access to government services 24/7 is one of the significant advantages of e-government systems. [16] defined access as “the range of public services available to citizens through online access”. Access to the services that institutions have monopolised is critical. Such services include vehicle registration and licensing services provisions, airport and harbour clearance of items, registration, and license renewal services. Regarding these, the government’s ability to implement online services and remove bureaucracy is very important [17] .

Despite this significant investment in e-government infrastructures, several challenges are faced by e-government, thus impeding the success different scholars show. Briefly, the following are some of them. Economic divide defined the economic or affordability divide as the gap between rich and poor and its effect on ICT adoption. The latest [18] survey found that citizens with high incomes in developed nations are more likely to have access to ICT than citizens in developing countries. Security Threats. Security threat remains the most significant worry regarding e-government though the confidence level in online government systems’ security has increased over the years. Threats such as interception of data, identity theft, hacking, copyright, and fraud are some of the issues users frequently encounter. Security does not only concern technical aspects but non-technical ones as well. E-government security assurances are significant if citizens are to use them. The digital literacy divides. The digital literacy divide refers to the gap in skills or know-how regarding ICT usage. [18] found a connection between the capability to use e-government efficiently and its usage. Policy and Regulation Issues. Policy and regulatory issues pose significant barriers to the implementation of e-government in public sector service delivery. Policies and regulations serve as guidelines, statements, principles, and approved functions within the government’s legislative body. They are used to direct the execution of e-government implementation in public services.

Technological readiness can be seen as a crucial mediator in the relationship between the resources available (human resource capital, financial resource capital, and information communication technology), government policies, and the adoption of e-government services. To begin with, the concept of technological readiness [19] encompasses the availability of necessary technologies and the skills and attitudes necessary for their effective utilization. It presents the preparedness of a society or an organization to use new technologies effectively. Given this definition, the relationship between human resource capital, financial resource capital, government policies, information communication technology (ICT), and e-government services can be viewed through the lens of technological readiness. In the context of human resource capital, skills and knowledge are paramount for the successful adoption and implementation of e-government services [20] . However, this relationship is mediated by technological readiness. Even if human resources with the necessary skills are available, without technological readiness—the infrastructure, attitude, and regulation supporting technology use—their impact on e-government services adoption can be minimal. Adequate funding is required for infrastructure development, training, and service delivery, among other things. Nevertheless, the relationship between financial resource capital and e-government services adoption is not direct. It is mediated by technological readiness. Sufficient financial resources may not lead to the successful adoption of e-government services without technological readiness. The preparedness to use the technologies bought or developed using the financial resources significantly determines the successful adoption of e-government services. Government policies play a critical role in providing a conducive environment for e-government services adoption [21] . Policies related to data protection, ICT, privacy, e-commerce, and more directly impact the adoption of e-government services. However, the relationship between government policies and e-government services adoption is mediated by technological readiness. Despite well-intentioned and supportive policies, without technological readiness—a conducive technological environment—these policies may not yield the intended results in terms of e-government services adoption. Lastly, ICT is at the heart of e-government services. It is the backbone upon which these services are delivered. However, ICT’s impact on e-government services adoption is mediated by technological readiness. A later study by [22] in the UK and Netherlands identified the key mediating role of technological readiness in translating government policies into actionable digital initiatives. They found that even well-conceived policies could fail to promote e-government adoption if they are not aligned with the technological readiness of the targeted public sector institutions and the general populace. [23] further underpinned this notion by investigating the role of technological readiness in India’s e-government context. Their findings suggested that technological readiness was a crucial mediating factor between the ICT infrastructure and the adoption of e-government services, particularly in developing economies where the digital divide could be pronounced. Moreover, [24] suggested that examining Saudi Arabia’s e-government program underlines the importance of technological readiness as a mediator. Their work noted that despite considerable financial investments, and a well-articulated strategy, the adoption rate of e-government services was not at the anticipated level. The authors attributed this gap to the low technological readiness among users and within public sector entities. In brief, technological readiness mediates the relationship between human resource capital, financial resource capital, government policies, ICT, and e-government services adoption. This implies that technological readiness should be at the forefront when strategizing on the successful adoption of e-government services. Therefore, in addition to focusing on human resource capital, financial resource capital, government policies, and ICT, stakeholders should equally focus on promoting technological readiness. Technological readiness significantly influences the Zanzibar SMEs successful adoption of e-government services, encompassing multifaceted aspects like technological infrastructure, digital literacy, financial resources, regulatory climate, socio-cultural variables, and cybersecurity [25] .

While referring to what has been illustrated by [26] , he discussed that human resource capital consists of factors that influence the level of user readiness and perceived value of adopting an e-government system. The human dimension is related to the psychological factors of users driving technology in the e-Government context. Thus, the human size includes optimism, innovativeness, discomfort, insecurity, compatibility and social influence factors, enhancing the reliability of IoT adoption in e-government. By equipping the workforce with the required expertise added that effective change management strategies should mitigate resistance, promote user acceptance, and ensure a smooth transition. Clear communication channels, stakeholder engagement, and comprehensive training initiatives are essential to successful change management.

Many studies have been conducted towards the financial on e-government system adoption, whereby it determines precisely failure or success. The budget of the organization is also essential, because it reflects the priorities in the organisation’s development. Most developing countries are struggling to fund their e-government initiatives. They lack financial support to implement e-government projects, resulting in a funding dilemma even if governments have plans for implementing e-government [27] . The implementation of e-government in almost all countries in the world becomes successful because the countries commit to disbursing sufficient budget across government departments; otherwise, other departments will lag in the implementation of e-government projects, resulting in e-government service gaps. Therefore, the researcher relates the situation of the e-government adoption system in Zanzibar SMEs e-government services technology readiness [27] .

Developing countries face the challenge of promoting competition in markets traditionally dominated by monopoly providers, and this underscores the importance of creating effective telecommunications policies and regulatory frameworks. Legal frameworks and laws play a crucial role in advancing the e-government development agenda by providing a range of civil and criminal penalties and enforcement procedures [28] . Furthermore, the study emphasizes the significance of security and privacy protection as a critical factor in enhancing the reliability of e-government services. Government entities should develop and enforce privacy policies and regulations to safeguard citizens’ personal information. These policies need to clearly outline the collection, storage, processing, and sharing of personal data, ensuring compliance with relevant data protection laws. In brief, having clear regulations and laws, regularly updated policies, and robust privacy protection measures are vital for creating a trusted and secure environment for e-government services.

The role of technology, mainly Information and Communication Technology (ICT), is crucial in adopting Zanzibar SMEs e-government services. According to [29] , the technology dimension relates to the capabilities offered by technology, which can enhance user acceptance of e-government systems by providing superior system quality and user support. Similarly, the use of technology, such as SMS and BBM, has enabled citizens to mobilize and organize various activities, ranging from demonstrations to coordinating riots and political campaigns. These examples highlight how technology has facilitated the mobilization of large groups of people, showcasing the potential of information and communication technologies (ICT) to enhance citizen engagement. Crowd sourcing has gained attention as a concept that can leverage the power of the crowd to involve citizens in public sector initiatives.

This study is underpinned by several theoretical frameworks that facilitate understanding Zanzibar SMEs e-government services technological readiness. These theories provide a well-rounded perspective on e-government services adoption by examining the role of human resource capital, financial resource capital, government policies, and information communication technology, emphasising technological readiness and digital literacy as mediating and moderating factors, respectively.

1) The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT)

The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) is a prominent framework that provides significant insights into technology adoption and use. One of the key contributors to the development of this theory is Venkatesh, who, along with his colleagues, proposed the theory to consolidate various models of technology acceptance [30] . The UTAUT is composed of four key constructs, among which is performance expectancy. According to [31] , performance expectancy is defined as the degree to which an individual believes that utilizing a specific system will augment their job performance. This construct merges five related factors, including perceived usefulness (from Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and TAM2, as well as Combined TAM and TPB (C-TAM-TPB)), extrinsic motivation (from Motivational Model (MM)), job-fit (from Model of PC Utilization (MPCU)), relative advantage (from Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT)), and outcome expectations (from Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)). The UTAUT also suggests that the influence of these constructs on technology adoption and use is moderated by certain demographic variables, such as age and gender [31] . Effort expectancy, another core construct in the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), is defined as the degree to which an individual believes that using a particular system would be free from effort [31] . Social influence is a construct defined in the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) as the extent to which an individual perceives that important others (such as senior staff members or influential individuals) believe they should use the new system (Venkatesh et al., 2003). As defined by [31] facilitating conditions represent the degree to which an individual believes that an existing organizational and technical infrastructure supports the system use. In the Perceived Behavioral Control (TPB/DTPB, C-TAM-TPB) model, facilitating conditions play a critical role, suggesting that individuals are more likely to engage in a behaviour when they perceive they have the necessary resources and opportunities.

2) Technology Acceptance Theory (TAM)

The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) has played a significant role in informing the development and adoption of e-government systems. The TAM was originally proposed by [30] as a theoretical framework to explain end-user acceptance and use of technology across a wide range of computing technologies and user demographics. At its core, the TAM posits those two specific beliefs shape technology acceptance: Perceived Usefulness (PU) and Perceived Ease of Use (PEU). [30] defined PU as the potential user’s subjective probability that using a particular system, such as a single platform e-payment system, would enhance their job performance. On the other hand, PEU refers to the degree to which the prospective user expects the target system to be free of effort. The TAM further acknowledges that these perceptions might be shaped by other factors, referred to as external variables within the model. The model has undergone several refinements, with the final iteration, TAM3, being developed by [32] .

The present research aims to delve into a comprehensive understanding of the adoption of e-government services in Zanzibar, focusing on the various factors influencing this process. The study’s main thrust is to examine the interplay between human capital, financial capacity, e-government policies, ICT infrastructure, and technological readiness as a mediator in shaping the adoption of e-government services. To effectively analyze these complex interactions and their impacts, this study sets forth several research hypotheses.

1) Human Resource Capital and E-Government Services Adoption

The organisation’s management characteristics play an important role [33] . For example, the implementation readiness of management has consequences for the implementation of e-government services [34] . The implementation of e-government services adoption, a clear vision and strategy are important ingredients in e-government initiatives [35] [36] [37] . In addition to that, the ability to plan to any manager is still a must-have. A manager will need to assign tasks, meet objectives, and be responsible for finding ways to complete projects while staying within budget or time limits. Managers may also need to be flexible enough to adjust an existing plan to fit new circumstances in the implementation of e-government. Furthermore, personal and political power influences employees’ perception of new e-government services. Some employees are excited about new opportunities, but a potential barrier is lack of time to experiment which is essential to innovation and improving e-government services [38] . Management must carry out this kind of working environment to create an enabling environment for the smooth running of the organisations. Making this study successful and examining the role of Managers and capability in implementing e-government adoption. The following hypothesis is developed:

H1: Technological readiness influence the relationship between human resource capital and the adoption of e-government services in Zanzibar SMEs.

2) Financial Resource Capital and E-Government Services Adoption

The implementation of e-government initiatives requires funding to operate and maintain e-government projects. E-government services are provided through ICT infrastructure that can automate and digitize e-government services. The e-government ICT infrastructure may consist of several components forming the backbone of e-government implementation, namely infrastructure application server environment, infrastructure security, operating systems, application development tools, data and content management tools, and hardware [39] . The budget of the organization is also important, because it reflects the priorities in the organisation development. However, most developing countries are struggling to fund their e-government initiatives except for a few countries. The implementation of e-government in almost all countries in the world becomes successful because the countries commit to disburse sufficient budget across government departments. Researcher relates the situation on the adoption stages of implementation of e-government in public organisation. Therefore, the following hypothesis will be used to examine the reality.

H2: Technological readiness influence the relationship between financial resource capital and adoption of e-government services in Zanzibar SMEs.

3) Government Policies and E-Government Services Adoption

Government policies and regulations are important factors in e-government services adoption in any country of the universe [40] . For the digital transformation of government to succeed, digital technologies must be fully embedded in policymaking and service design processes from the outset. The public sector needs to be digital by design. This implies mobilizing existing and emerging technologies and data to rethink and re-engineer business processes and internal operations [40] . The aim is to simplify procedures, innovate public services, and open multiple channels of communication and engagement with the public and private sectors, the third sector and the public. It is for the development of this policy that shapes the guidelines implementation of e-government within the country. Therefore, the following hypothesis measures the effectives of the e-government adoption.

H3: Technological readiness influence the relationship between government policies and adoption of e-government services in Zanzibar SMEs.

4) Information Communication Technology and E-Government Services Adoption

In this situation, according to [41] , e-government is predicated on leveraging the power of technology to deliver services provided by governments. However, many e-government projects in developing countries are still in an early stage and have not achieved many expected outcomes such as cost savings and downsizing, amongst other issues [41] . It has been found that some technology-related factors have been studied from previous research. However, no comprehensive study could fulfill all components and factors. It has been understood that technological development improves the automation of the effective implementation of e-government towards the services adoption in the countries. In this regard, many developing countries’ governments trying to improve services to citizens through other channels, since the inability to provide e-government services to all citizens can hold back e-government projects [42] . The study intends to evaluate ICT infrastructure’s role in improving Zanzibar SMEs e-government services technological readiness.

H4: Technological readiness influence the relationship between information communication technology and adoption of e-government services in Zanzibar SMEs.

5) Technological Readiness as Mediator

Technological readiness plays a crucial mediating role in the connection between ICT infrastructure and the acceptance and application of e-government services in Zanzibar. In the context of Zanzibar, technological readiness can be seen as a potential mediator in the relationship between ICT infrastructure and the adoption of e-government services. High levels of technological readiness among citizens and e-government service users can facilitate effective use of existing ICT infrastructure, culminating in the successful uptake of e-government services. Therefore, efforts aimed at enhancing technological readiness, including initiatives to foster digital literacy, broaden access to technological resources, and provide training and support to develop comfort and familiarity with digital technologies, are critical to realize the full potential of ICT infrastructure [43] . Considering [44] definition of technological readiness, which includes individuals’ predisposition to adopt technology, the element of perceived usefulness from the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) can also be applied here. Moreover, [31] in their Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), highlighted performance expectancy (like perceived usefulness) and effort expectancy (like ease of use) as significant determinants of user acceptance and usage of technology. These constructs align well with the concept of technological readiness, as they emphasize the user’s capability and willingness to engage with the technology. Hence, it is crucial to provide necessary training and support to alleviate any possible technophobia among Zanzibar’s potential e-government service users. This leads to the proposed hypothesis:

6) The Importance of Technological Readiness as Mediating Role in Government Policy and the Relationship between ICT and E-Government Service Adoption

Technological readiness is very important in the mediating in government policy, and the relationship between ICT and e-government services adoption. The study by [45] point about trust transcends beyond the reliability of ICT infrastructure. Citizens build trust when there is consistency and transparency in government actions. Sound policies made them possible and reliable digital platforms. For Zanzibar, it means that while focusing on infrastructure development is pivotal, building and maintaining public trust is equally important. The transparency in policy formulation. The academic literature extensively explored the dynamic interplay between technological readiness and adopting e-government services. For instance, [46] provided a comprehensive overview of individual innovation adoption decisions that impacted technological readiness. They identified that people’s predispositions toward technology significantly affect their engagement with new digital services. Their study underscores the importance of creating a technologically ready environment to ensure the effective adoption of e-government services. Additionally, [47] , in his seminal work on the Diffusion of Innovations, highlighted the significance of the population’s technological readiness in determining the rate and breadth of new technological adoptions. He emphasized that technological innovations, including e-government services, require infrastructural readiness and a receptive audience. In Zanzibar, ensuring technological readiness to harness the benefits of available resources becomes paramount. Furthermore, the study by [48] evaluated the impact of citizens’ trust in e-government services. Their findings suggested that even when there is a high level of technological readiness and digital literacy, trust can be a pivotal determinant in the adoption rate of e-government services. [49] contributed to the discourse by examining citizens’ barriers and impediments in adopting e-government services. Their research accentuates the role of technological readiness, suggesting that even with the best policies and ICT infrastructure if citizens are technologically ready, the consumption of such services would be active. [50] emphasized the role of public-private partnerships in enhancing technological readiness. They suggest collaborations lead to shared expertise and resources, ultimately facilitating a more technologically ready environment for e-government adoption.

Quantitative research design holds significant merit for this study, which aims to explore the factors influencing the adoption of e-government services in Zanzibar. This approach is well-suited to address the research questions posed and test the formulated hypotheses due to several reasons. Firstly, quantitative research emphasizes objectivity [51] . The research can reduce the potential bias in data interpretation by collecting numerical data and analyzing it using statistical methods. This enhances the credibility and reliability of the findings and supports making precise and valid inferences about the population based on the sampled data [52] . Secondly, a quantitative approach allows for a broader overview of the situation. Given that this study focuses on e-government service adoption, it involves multiple dimensions such as human capital, financial capacity, policies, and ICT infrastructure [53] [54] .

The use of primary data for this study brings several benefits and advantages that are integral for achieving the objectives of this research, which aims to explore Zanzibar SMEs e-government services technological readiness. First, primary data offers data specificity. Since primary data is collected directly from the source, it can be designed and collected to precisely address the research questions and hypotheses of this study [55] . This ensures that all variables—human capital, financial capacity, e-government policies, ICT infrastructure, and technological readiness—are accurately and comprehensively captured. Fourth, primary data allows for the incorporation of diverse perspectives.

The population of Zanzibar, as of the 2022 census, was approximately 1,889,773 million [56] . However, for this study focused on Zanzibar SMEs e-government services adoption, the population of interest might be a subset of this larger group. The target population for this study would logically be those involved in the Zanzibar SMEs public sector, particularly employees who are actively engaged with e-government services, or citizens who use these services. A conservative estimation might be made because there is a lack of specific data on the number of these individuals. Applying this percentage to Zanzibar’s population would give approximately 600,000 potential e-government users. So, for this study, the total target population would be approximately 650,000 (50,000 public sector employees and 600,000 potential citizen users).

Simple random sampling is often utilized in surveys and quantitative research designs [57] . As in simple random sampling individuals get equal opportunity to participate in the study, it is favorable in studies where the population is homogenous, and the population of the study is uniformly distributed. Simple random sampling is an extensively used sampling method in scientific research. Simple random sampling is selected for populations which are highly homogenous where the members of the research are randomly selected to participate in the research [58] . Simple Random Sampling is the “simplest and most common method of selecting a sample, in which the sample is selected unit by unit, with equal probability of selection for each unit at each draw” [59] .

Determining an appropriate sample size is a critical step in quantitative research. An adequately sized sample helps to ensure that the results are representative of the overall population and that the study’s findings can be generalized. In this case, the target population for the study is estimated to be 650,000, which includes both public sector employees and potential citizen users of e-government services in Zanzibar. To calculate the sample size, several factors must be considered: the confidence level (how sure we want to be that our sample results reflect the actual population), the margin of error (the amount of error we’re willing to accept), and the population proportion (a guess about the response we’re likely to see). The sample size of this study would be decided on a confidence level of 95%, which is quite common in social science research. For the margin of error, this study chooses 5%, which means we are okay if our results are off by 5% in either direction. For the population proportion, because the study does not have a prior estimate, it is common to use 0.5 (or 50%) which maximizes sample size and ensures a more conservative approach. The formula for calculating the sample size (n) when the population is greater than 10,000 is as follows.

Here:

n = z 2 × p ^ ( 1 − p ^ ) ε 2

Z is the z-value (for a 95% confidence level, the z-value is 1.96);

P is the estimated proportion of the population which has the attribute in question (0.5 in our case);

E is the margin of error (0.05 in our case).

So, substituting these values into the formula [60] :

n = 1.96 2 × 0.5 ( 1 − 0.5 ) 0.05 2 = 384.16

So, based on this formula, the initial sample size should be 384. However, because the study population is finite (650,000), It will be needed to apply a correction formula:

n = n / [ 1 + ( ( n − 1 ) / N ) ]

Here, n is the initial sample size and N is the population size. Substituting these values into the formula:

n = 384 / [ 1 + ( ( 384 − 1 ) / 650000 ) ]

n = 384 / [ 1 + ( 383 / 650000 ) ]

n = 384 / 1.00058923

n = 383.84 -Rounding up, the final sample size should be approximately 384 participants.

The following are the research instruments that were applied during the data collection stage particularly in the qualitative part.

A questionnaire is a pre-formulated written set of questions to which respondents record their answers, usually within rather closely defined alternatives. Questionnaires are generally designed to collect large numbers of quantitative data. They can be administered personally, distributed electronically, or mailed to the respondents. Questionnaires are generally less expensive and time-consuming than interviews and observation, but they also introduce a much larger chance of non-response and non-response errors. [61] through this method, different respondents will be given a paper to fill in information as set by the direction from the researcher or research assistant. The questionnaire was supplied to 400 respondents who were involved in the study. [62] . A questionnaire is a pre-formulated written set of questions to which respondents record their answers, usually within instead of closely defined alternatives. Questionnaires to collect large numbers of quantitative data. The researcher administered the survey personally, distributed them electronically, or mailed them to the respondents. Questionnaires are generally less expensive and time-consuming than interviews and observation, but they also introduce a much larger chance of non-response and non-response error. According to [61] , the researcher or research assistant distributes the questionnaire to different respondents to fill in the required information set by the direction. The respondents involved in the study would respond to the questionnaire. The contents involved in designing the questionnaire were the main areas related to the study format and structure. The survey questionnaire would take approximately 20 minutes to complete. A self-administered questionnaire instead of a postal or e-mail questionnaire encouraged people to participate in the study. According to [63] , the advantages of a questionnaire include the following aspects: 1) simple to administer; 2) the data obtained is reliable; and 3) the coding, analysis, and interpretation of data are relatively simple and straightforward. Most questions are alternative questions requiring respondents to select from a predetermined set of responses. Additionally, the researchers used itemized scale ratings, namely, the Likert-type scale, to measure the responses to the questionnaire. The advantages of Likert scaling are that it is easy to construct and understand, flexible, and economical in terms of space [64] . The survey’s main objective is to get first-hand information from the respondents regarding the current e-government services adoption in Zanzibar. The researcher obtained the feedback directly from the users based on their experiences described in the paper. Survey question tools with simple random sampling with heterogeneous participants, the data may produce accurate findings. [65] Additionally, according to [66] and [67] , the sampling technique is effective when the population is homogeneous, and the list of the population intended for the study is easily accessible. It is essential to use impartial random selection [68] . It lessened the confounding effects of both known and unknown factors through randomization [69] . There is an equal probability for each sample thus reducing bias or distortion.

1) Reliability in Quantitative Research

One of the main requirements of any research process is the reliability of the data and findings. Reliability deals with the consistency, dependability, and replicability of “the results obtained from a piece of research” [70] . Obtaining similar results in quantitative research is relatively straightforward because the data is in numerical form. [71] [72] point out that instead of obtaining the same results, it is better to think about the dependability and consistency of the data. Therefore, relating to the explanation from the authors, the researcher uses it to ensure that different techniques contribute to consistency. To ensure there was reliability in the study. The pilot study was taken. Generally, the results showed that Cronbach’s Alpha values ranged from 0.852 to 0.945 for the constructs, with an average value of 0.957 across all constructs. In the large scale survey, the study assessed the measurement model. The study assessed the constructs separately as the current study has two different constructs, reflective and formative constructs. The construct “e-government Services Adoption” showcases loading that oscillates between 0.751 (ESA05) and 0.939 (ESA02), reflecting each item’s commendable reliability. The results observed fidelity in measurement for constructs such as “Technological Readiness”. It is pivotal to highlight that the researcher omitted specific items, namely ESA10, TR09, TR10, GF01, GF10, HC10, and ICTI10, due to their subpar loading. The exclusions accentuate the rigorous criteria applied to ensure measurement quality.

2) Validity in Quantitative Research

[73] defined it as “a valid account if it represented accurately the features of the phenomena, that it intended to describe, explain or theorize” (p. 69), [74]. Researchers note that all the strategies aim to strengthen the representation of the data and findings [75] . In the current study, the researcher considered validity necessary while validating the data. Researchers often discuss issues such as objectivity, truth, evidence, reason, fact, and numbers when talking about validity [75] and validity in quantitative research has strict methodological rules and standards. A researcher would commit to achieving the task. The study used three measures to check the discriminant validity (the degree to which items differentiate among constructs or measure distinct concepts) of the measurement model: the cross-loading, the Fornell-Larcker criterion, and HTMT. Researchers consider the average variance extracted (AVE) to establish convergent validity [76] . Thus, the AVE is equal to the commonality of a construct. An AVE value of 0.50 or higher shows that, on average, the construct explains more than half of the variance of its indicators using the same logic as the individual indicators. On the other hand, an AVE of less than 0.50 shows that, on average, there are more errors in the items than the variance explained by the construct [76] . The Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) used to evaluate discriminant validity in the constructs. The method compares the correlation of indicators across constructs with the correlation of indicators within the same construct. All the HTMT values are well below the threshold of 0.85, implying that each construct is distinctly different. It confirms satisfactory discriminant validity among the constructs in the model. Table 1 shows HTMT used to evaluate discriminant validity. For illustration see (Table 1).

Source: Field research data, 2023.

The Fornell-Larcker criterion, is another tool employed to verify discriminant validity. The criterion emphasizes that a construct’s square root of the average variance extracted (AVE) should be greater than its correlations with other constructs. A close examination reveals that diagonal values, which, are indeed higher than off-diagonal values in their corresponding rows and columns. Significantly surpasses its other correlations, the highest being 0.601 with ‘Technological Readiness. Table 2 show Fornell-Larcker criterion.

Operationalisation of Human Resource Capital

In this study, the operationalization of human capital was adapted from the Human Capital Index (HCI) developed by [77] . The construct of human capital was measured using a Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). The questionnaire included ten items that assessed various aspects of human capital related to the use of e-government services. The responses were used to assess the extent to which individuals perceive themselves to possess the necessary human capital for effectively utilizing e-Government services in Zanzibar (See Table 3 ).

Operationalisation of Financial Resource Capital

The operationalization of Financial Capacity in this study includes ten items adapted from [78] . The participants were asked to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement on a five-point Likert scale ranging from “Strongly Disagree” (1) to “Strongly Agree” (5). The items measure various aspects of financial capacity. Participants selected the response option that best represents their perspective on each item (see Table 4).

Operationalisation of Government Policies

To measure the operationalization of e-government policies, a set of ten items was adapted from previous studies [79] [80] [81] . These items capture the perceptions of respondents regarding the effectiveness and impact of e-government policies in their country. Participants are asked to indicate their level of agreement on a five-point Likert scale ranging from “Strongly Disagree” (1) to “Strongly Agree” (5). The items cover various dimensions Government policies. The scale provides a comprehensive framework for evaluating the extent to which e-government policies are perceived to be successfully operationalized in the context of the study (see Table 5).

Source: Field research data, 2023.

Operationalisation of Information Communication Technology

The operationalisation of ICT infrastructure was based on the adaptation of the “Perceived ICT Infrastructure Scale” developed by [82] . The scale consisted of 10 items that assessed participants’ perceptions of various aspects of ICT infrastructure in their organization. Participants were asked to rate each item on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). The items covered various dimensions in ICT. The responses provided valuable insights into participants’ perceptions of the state of ICT infrastructure in their organization (See Table 6).

Operationalisation of Technological Readiness

The operationalisation of technological readiness in this study is based on the Technology Readiness Index (TRI) developed by [83]. The TRI consists of ten items that assess individuals’ readiness to embrace new technologies. These items capture various dimensions of technological readiness given. Participants rated their level of agreement with each item on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). By using this operationalization, the study aims to assess individuals’ readiness and attitudes towards technology, providing insights into their propensity to adopt and utilize e-government services in Zanzibar (see Table 7).

Operationalisation of E-Government Services Adoption

The operationalisation of e-government services adoption in this study is based on a scale adapted from previous research studies [32] [84] [85] . The

construct includes ten items that measure various aspects of e-government services adoption. Participants are asked to rate their agreement with each item on a five-point Likert scale ranging from “Strongly Disagree” (1) to “Strongly Agree” (5) (See Table 8).

Is a statistical technique used to assess the strength and direction of the relationship between two or more variables? It is a valuable tool in research as it allows researchers to determine if there is a significant association between variables and to what extent they relate [86] . Correlation coefficients, such as the Pearson correlation coefficient, measure the degree of linear relationship between variables. The coefficient ranges from −1 to +1, where a value close to +1 indicates a strong positive correlation, a value close to −1 indicates a strong negative correlation, and a value close to 0 indicates no or weak correlation [87] . Correlation analysis helps researchers understand the nature of the relationship between variables, whether positive or negative, and provides insights into how changes in one variable could impact another. Various fields, such as social sciences, economics, and health research, use correlation analysis to examine the inter dependencies between variables and guide further analysis and decision-making. Correlation analysis determines the relationship between the four independent variables, Human Resource Capital (HRC), Financial Resource Capacity (FRC), Government Policies (GP), and Information Communication Technology Infrastructure (ICTI), and a mediating variable. Mediating variables are crucial in interpreting the relationship between independent and dependent variables [88] . In the study, the mediating variable could be the attitude toward technology or the perceived usefulness of e-government services. The analysis helps uncover the potential indirect effects of the independent variables on the dependent variable through the mediating variable. The study analyses the correlation between technological readiness and e-government services. Technological readiness refers to the preparedness to adopt and use new technologies, which is crucial for successfully adopting e-government services [83] . By analyzing the correlation between the two variables, the study provides insights into how enhancing technological readiness leads to improved uptake and utilization of e-government services in Zanzibar.

The coefficient of determination, denoted as R2, is an essential metric in SEM that offers insights into the proportion of variance in the dependent variables explained by the independent variables. A higher R2 indicates the structural model’s more robust predictive capacity. Delving into the current study’s findings, the R2 for e-government Services Adoption stands at 0.462. It infers that the model predictors explain approximately 46.2% of the variance in the construct. According to the established benchmarks, the effect size is “Substantial” [89] and “Fair” as per the standards of [90] and [91] . Conversely, Technological Readiness yields an R2 of 0.587. The predictors account for a substantial 58.7% of the variance in the construct. Given the benchmarks, the given rate is “Perfect” per Cohen’s standards and “Excellent” according to [90] and [91] Mediation Assessment Mediation effect occurs when a third variable (mediator) intervenes between other two constructs that are related. It can be explained that a mediator variable accounts for a relationship that exist between an exogenous variable (predictor) and endogenous variable (the criterion) [76] [86] . Therefore, the relationship nature between two variables is governed by mediator variable, it is the mechanism or process that is fundamental to the relationship, and therefore, mediation effect requires a strong theoretical justification to support it [76] . A study by [84] pinpointed problems with the Baron and Kenny method [86] “Statistical mediation analysis in the new millennium” and suggested full solutions in his book [84] , to test the effect of mediation by determining the indirect effect using the bootstrapping technique. Mediation significance test is conducted by bootstrapping approach because bootstrapping can be applied to small sample with confidence. Moreover, it has no sample and variable shape distribution assumption and test significance with confidence interval. This approach thus, is suited perfectly for PLS-SEM and in addition, it generates higher statistical power than Sobel test [76] .

H9a: The mediation analysis for the relationship between Human Resource Capital and E-government Services Adoption via Technological Readiness yielded a beta value of −0.012, with a p-value of 0.163 (see Table 9). Given that the p-value is above the significance level of 0.05, the mediation effect of Technological Readiness in this relationship is not significant. As a result, H9a is not supported.

Figure 1 mediates relationship between Human Resource Capital and E-government Services Adoption.

H9b: Similarly, when assessing the mediation effect of Technological Readiness between Financial Source Capital and E-government Services Adoption, a beta value of −0.019 was observed with a p-value of 0.070. This p-value, slightly above the significance threshold, indicates that the mediation effect, though potentially influential, is not statistically significant at the 0.05 level. Therefore, H9b is not supported.

Figure 2 mediates relationship between Financial Resource Capital and E-government Services Adoption.

H9c: For the relationship between Government Policies and E-government Services Adoption, the mediating role of Technological Readiness resulted in a

beta value of −0.075 and a p-value of 0.026. This p-value, being below the significance level, provides evidence that Technological Readiness significantly mediates the relationship between Government Policies and E-government Services Adoption. Hence, H9c is supported.

Figure 3 mediates relationship between Government Policies and E-government Services Adoption.

H9d: Lastly, regarding the relationship between Information Communication Technology and E-government Services Adoption, the mediation analysis showed a beta value of −0.029 and a p-value of 0.048. This p-value, marginally below the significance threshold of 0.05, indicates that Technological Readiness has a significant mediating role in this relationship. Consequently, H9d is supported.

Figure 4 mediates relationship between Information Communication Technology and E-government Services Adoption.

Answer to RQ9: To what extent does technological readiness mediate the impact of human resource capital, financial resource capital, government policies, information communication technology and digital literacy as a moderator towards the adoption of e-government services in Zanzibar.

Technological readiness was observed to be a significant mediator, especially when digital literacy played the role of a moderator. This mediation effect indicates that simply having resources is not enough; they need to be appropriately channeled and utilized, which is where technological readiness comes into play. Technological readiness, as a mediating factor, has long been the subject of research in the realm of e-government service adoption. The importance of technological readiness, as observed in this study for Zanzibar, aligns with the findings of [83] , who emphasized that technological readiness not only encompasses infrastructure and tools but also the mindset and readiness of the populace to embrace and use new technologies. Therefore, even with adequate human resource capital and financial investment, if the target audience isn’t technologically ready, the adoption of e-government services might remain suboptimal. Contrastingly, [45] in their study posited that while technological readiness is undoubtedly a critical factor, external variables like trust in the internet and perceived lack of accessibility often overshadow its significance. Their findings implied that people might be technologically ready but might still resist adoption due to external variables. This perspective throws light on Zanzibar’s SMEs context, where despite the mediation of technological readiness, external factors

influenced by government policies, or lack of trust might hinder the optimal adoption of e-government services. Another noteworthy angle emerges from the study by [91] which centered on the role of digital literacy as a moderator. Their research indicated that the higher the level of digital literacy, the more pronounced the mediation effect of technological readiness becomes. This aligns well with the observations for Zanzibar, where digital literacy amplified the mediating impact of technological readiness. It underscores the point that when individuals are well-versed with digital tools, they are more prepared to adapt to technological changes, thereby making the e-government services more effective and widespread to Zanzibar SMEs. In brief, while the current study highlights the pivotal role of technological readiness and the moderating effect of digital literacy in Zanzibar’s context, it is essential to understand that the dynamics of e-government service adoption are multifaceted. The various layers of complexities, as explored by previous researchers, provide a comprehensive understanding of how multiple variables intersect and interact to influence the end outcome. As Zanzibar continues on its journey of e-governance, these nuances will need careful consideration.