Cultivated rice is divided into two distinct types namely Oryza sativa L. and Oryza glaberrima which are commonly known as Asia rice and African rice respectively. Between the two subspecies Oryza sativa which originated from Asia continent around 8000 BC is the most widely distributed and grown almost globally while Oryza glaberrima which originated in West Africa around 3000 BC is restricted only in West Africa [1] [2] [3] . Nevertheless, both of the rice have unique domestication histories and play most important components of human diet that have energized and nourished mankind for thousands of years [4] . Rice is the staple food and principal food crop for more than 50% of the world’s population [5] [6] . Because of its potential of feeding more people in the world the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) regards it as a strategic crop for food security in the world [7] .

Rice is the second most important food crop after maize in Tanzania, It is being grown by 18% of the farming households and is more marketed than maize. The quantity of marketed rice is approximately 42% of the total production while that of maize is 28%, thus being more commercialized than maize [8] . Tanzania is among the top three countries in Africa and it ranks 22nd in the world in terms of rice production [9] [10] . This indicates how important this crop has evolved to be in Tanzania [11] . The rapidly increasing trend in rice production and consumption is partly due to increase of population, urbanization and rice preference [11] [12] [13] .

Notwithstanding the evidence that Tanzania is one of the top producers of rice in Africa, the rice productivity is one of the lowest in the world (Table 1), it ranges from 0.71 tons/ha to 3.31 tons/ha which is far below the world standard of 4.5 tons/ha. Increasing rice production/productivity and value addition in Tanzania will have paramount effects on resource poor farmers in Tanzania in terms of food security, livelihoods and source of income [14] . Rice value addition will not only introduce new cuisine with rich taste but also spurs small and large scale industries such as wine, vinegar, flour blending, furniture, and animal feedstuff making. This will enable farmers to have alternative sources of income as well as empowerment and poverty eradication [14] [15] [16] .

The overall physical environment of the East African coast historically made it an important supplier of spices, jewels, timber, laborers, and other goods to Arabia and the rest of the Asia [17] . It is probable that the Indian Ocean was mostly used for commercial navigation after the discovery of the monsoon winds by Hippalus in the third century B.C.E. The information presented in the Periplus and in Ptolemy’s Geography, it seems clear that a basic east-west nexus between the Red Sea and India was already in place by the second century. By the ninth century, and probably earlier, a fully articulated commercial system existed that extended from East Africa and the Red Sea to China [17] [18] .

[19] narrated that Oryza sativa was first introduced to the Coast of East Africa then known as “Azania coast” by Asian traders from Sri Lanka and India over 1000 years ago. Some of these Asian traders settled in Zanzibar, Kilwa, Somalia, Mafia, Mombasa and other East Africa coastal towns. They soon started cultivating

Source: [10] .

rice in lowlands and valleys. Rice cultivation did not spread quickly to East Africa countryside for centuries until during slave trade. Slave trade opened up the East Africa countryside. The spread of rice as well as other crops such as Maize (Zea mays), Cassava (Manihot esculentum) country side followed along the slave trading routes from Zanzibar, Bagamoyo, Morogoro, Iringa, Dodoma, Singida, Sumbawanga, Tabora, Shinyanga, Mwanza, and Kigoma and beyond Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika [18] [20] . At first cultivation of rice was done mostly by Arab traders who settled in these areas. The local farmers were not interested to the new crop because they did not know how to cultivate, cook and its production turned out to be less reliable in comparison their indigenous crops such as pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), banana (Musa spp), finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) [20] [21] .

During colonial period, Colonial government emphasized cash crops as raw materials for their industries in Europe. In Tanganyika (Tanzania) the German introduced cotton in western Tanzania, sisal in Eastern coastal areas, coffee and tea in Northern and Southern highlands of Tanzania [20] [22] . After taking over from German in 1920s there were evidences showing British colonial agricultural officers sighting rice cultivation [20] [22] [23] . The British colonialist emphasized on cash crops rather than food crops as their predecessors, for example, the colonial authorities shifted labour from food production and attempted to create a surplus of a labour-intensive non-food cash crop [24] . During colonial period only cash crops research centres were established such as Ukiriguru Research Centre (established in 1930) for cotton in Western Tanzania, Ilonga Research Institute (established in 1943, Mlingano Agriculture Research Institute (established in 1934) for sisal research and improvement [25] . All these actions and colonial policy resulted into low production and circulation of quantity and quality of food which in turn caused severe food shortage, chroming malnutrition, hunger and even deaths to many local people [24] .

After independence, farmers became free in choices of what to cultivate. The record of rice cultivation became available (Table 1). The Tanzania government focus included research to improve food crops as well as livestock under smallholder farmers. The year after Tanzania got independence (1961) rice production was recorded at 94,000 tonnes from 82,000 (ha) cultivated area. The succeeding year’s rice production (tonnes) as well as area under rice cultivation (ha) steadily increased [10] . After green revolution in 1960s in Asia, The Tanzania government introduced many high yielding varieties from India and Philippines. The varieties introduced included IR54, IR56, IR64, IR68, Supa8, Kihogo Red Basmati Pishori, Ran Captain, Calyaman, Supa India [20] [26] [27] [28] . The growing interest for rice by the farmers encouraged the Government to establish rice research centre Katrin at Ifakara in 1975. Since 1975 Katrin has operated as the major institute dealing with rice research in the country. A number of traditional varieties including Faya of the Theresa, Afaa mwanza, Kihogo selection No. 1/159, 0/746, Kihogo selection No.7, 22 and 23, Gamti, Tunduru Dunduli, Salama have been developed through pure-line selection, testing and evaluation at different locations in the country [28] . In 1980s, Sokoine University of Agriculture was established at meantime Uyole and Ukiriguru research center’s started doing rice research and improvement as well. International research institute such as West Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA), Africa rice, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) they all opened office in Tanzania by year 2000. New rice varieties, rice production technologies and various good agriculture practices were introduced to farmers by the researchers and extension officers. By 2019 and 2020, Tanzania produced 3,474,766 and 4,528,000 tons of rice respectively (Table 1). Rice is a very essential part of the daily Tanzania meal. It is also cooked on festivals and special occasions in different forms using several spices. This has propelled Tanzania to produce more rice and now is the leading producer of rice in East, Central and Southern African countries [9] [10] [29] . Also rice has emerged as a vital crop not only as staple food but also source of income and livelihoods to millions of farmers in Tanzania. Above all, rice has massive potential for powering small industries and development in Tanzania.

In Tanzania, rice is cultivated under three major ecosystems namely rain-fed lowland, upland rice and irrigated ecosystem [30] [31] . The large scale rice farmer’s account for small proportion (less than 10%) While the majority of rice farmers in Tanzania are small scale farmers (about 90%). Most large scale rice producers use irrigation because of their economies of scale and large investment. Hence, it is estimated that only 5% of rice is produced under irrigation system. Most of small scale farmers can’t afford irrigation system investment therefore it is estimated that 85% of rice is produced under rainfed lowland and around 10% produced under upland ecosystem [14] [32] [33] [34] .

Rice production in Tanzania has been loaded by many pests and diseases which have significantly reduced yield. The incidence, severity and distribution of these pests and diseases depend on stage of infestation/infection, rice ecosystem, location, season, variety, farming system, and weather condition [36] . Other important diseases are leaf blast caused by Magnaporthe oryzae and Bacterial leaf blight caused by Xanthomonas Orzae pv oryzae [6] [36] [37] . Also pests can cause total rice yield loss. Common pests include stem borers (Chillo spp), African rice gall midge (Orseolia oryzivora), rodents and birds (Table 3). Integrated disease and pest management (IDPM) options are being used includes good agricultural practices, mechanical, botanical, chemical and biological control of pests and disease in the country. Despite the use of IDPM methods in controlling pests still the problem continue to exist. There is a need to renew IDPM by involving all stakeholders such as Researchers, extension officers and farmers with the help of updated technologies ICT tools to disseminate information about different IDPM strategies.

In order to increase rice production and make rice contribute more to food security and farmers livelihoods interventions is needed by Government and Agricultural stakeholders to undertake more researches which will lead into new varieties, new method of farming and crop protections. Furthermore, utilization of modern technologies such as mutation breeding, polyploidy breeding, biotechnologies, production of perennial rice variety and climate smart farming systems will be key in obtaining sustainable solutions to future rice production. This technologies have successful utilize in rice and other crops in many countries so it has potentials to be fully utilized in Tanzania and became effective as well [6] [29] [35] [41] .

Moreover, enhancing extension services using ICT, lead farmers and field demonstration centres will help making sure research outputs and solutions are put in use by farmers. Studies shows most of research output or solutions that are published in journals and books are rarely used by farmers in rural areas [77] . Despite having some high yielding varieties such as SARO5, NERICA etc (Table 2) most farmers continues using farm saved seeds from landraces which are mostly of low quality [57] [77] . Training rice farmers on community seed production under the umbrella of Agricultural Marketing Cooperative Society (AMCOS) will likely help the diffusion of improved seed. The improved seed they can be introduced to farmers through AMCOS and Quality declared Seed (QDS) can be produces in subsequent years under the supervision of Zonal Tanzania Seed Certification Institute (TOSCI) and agricultural officers in their villages or wards [78] . Similarly, implementation of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) from land selection and preparation to harvesting is key in sustaining high and increased rice production. The use of system of rice intensification (SRI) and enhancement of irrigation schemes via diversion of rivers, use of lake, underground water and harvesting of rainwater will increase productivity, reduce dependence on rain and increase resilience of farmers [57] . Also, will make it possible to produce rice at least twice or thrice a year in some areas increasing out a, revenue and profit margin to rice farmers. With the rice production of 4,528,000 tonnes in 2020, rice production can jump up to close or more than 10,000,000 tonnes a year which will make Tanzania the leading country in rice production in Africa. Other countries like Egypt and south Asia they produce twice a year so it can be done in Tanzania as well [34] [57] .

The increase of rice production will enhance food security and rice surplus. The rice surplus will spur industrialization in rice growing areas. Rice farmers will be able to sell rice and rice by products such as rice husks and rice straws. Small and large industries will be established for rice processing, grading and packaging of white or brown rice. Rice processors can further make rice flour, rice flour blending or manufacture starch for both medical and industrial purposes. Flour can be locally used for making porridge, ugali or rice cake (vitumbua). Other industries will be established use rice and rice product in the manufacturing of different products such as pasta, noodles, vinegar, rice wine, animal feedstuffs and furniture’s.

Markets (both local and international) will be created for rice products. Many people will be able to self-employ or be employed in businesses related to rice. The Value of rice and profit margin will increase hence many farmers will enter and specialize intensively in rice production and the rice cultivation will finally become resilient and sustainable because farmers will be more professional, have good profit margins, assured profits and available markets for their produce.

Rice production in Tanzania happened by chance through the Asian early settlers. It passed centuries unnoticed. Slave trade helped its spread. After independence, the production increased dramatically despite many setbacks and challenges. Although production has increased significantly, rice productivity is low in comparison to world rice productivity standards. This is partly due to dependence on rainfall, little use of improved variety and low adoption of good agricultural practices. The consumption and demand of rice are ever increasing because of high preference of rice as a staple food by Tanzanians and people in neighbouring countries in Africa. In order to sustain rice production and make rice farmers resilient against climate change, global warming and globalization effects climate smart technologies, new varieties, irrigated rice ecosystem, research on new varieties and more rice value addition should be adopted. As long as farmers will continue getting good harvests and good profits from rice cultivation despite all other challenges then farmer will continue or perhaps increase rice cultivation. Rice has potential of becoming a main food as well as source of income, livelihood and re-ignite industrialization and economic development in Tanzania.

The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

Busungu, C. (2023) Past, Present and Future Perspectives of Rice Production in Tanzania. Agricultural Sciences, 14, 987-1006. https://doi.org/10.4236/as.2023.148066