Maxwell’s equations were published by J. C. Maxwell in 1861 [6] . He calculated the velocity of electromagnetic waves from the value of an electrodynamic constant c measured by Weber and Kohlrausch in 1857 [7] and noticed that the calculated velocity was very close to the velocity of light measured by Fizeau in 1849 [8] . This observation made him suggest that light is an electromagnetic phenomenon [9] .

We emphasize that c in Maxwell’s equations is the electrodynamic constant but not the speed of light in vacuum. It is worth noting that the speed of light in vacuum, commonly denoted as c, is not related to the World in our Model, because there is no Vacuum in It. Instead, there is the Medium of the World consisting of stable elementary particles.

Rydberg constant R ∞ is a physical constant relating to atomic spectra. The constant first arose in 1888 as an empirical fitting parameter in the Rydberg formula for the hydrogen spectral series [10] .

Electron Charge-to-Mass Ratio e / m e is a Quantity in experimental physics. It bears significance because the electron mass m e cannot be measured directly. The e / m e ratio of an electron was successfully measured by J. J. Thomson in 1897 [11] . We name it after Thomson: R T ≡ e / m e .

Planck Constant h was suggested by M. Planck in 1901 as the result of investigating the problem of black-body radiation. He used Boltzmann’s equation from Statistical Thermodynamics: S = k B ln W that shows the relationship between entropy S and the number of ways the atoms or molecules of a thermodynamic system can be arranged ( k B is the Boltzmann constant) [12] .

Based on the experimentally measured values of the constants R ∞ , R T , c, h, and the magnetic constant: μ 0 = 4 π × 10 − 7 H / m we make measurable the most important constants as follows [5] :

● Basic size unit a :

a = 0.5 [ 8 ( μ 0 h / c ) 3 R ∞ R T 6 ] 1 / 5 = 1.7705641 × 10 − 14   m

● Dimensionless Rydberg constant α:

α = ( 2 a R ∞ ) 1 / 3

● Electron rest energy E e :

E e = α h c / a

● Elementary charge e:

e 2 = 2 α h / μ 0 c

All these Fundamental constants, including classical electron radius a o = a / 2 π , could be calculated based on the experimentally measured constants before Quantum Physics! It is worth noting that the constant α was later named “Sommerfeld’s constant” and later “Fine-structure constant”.

In WUM we introduce the following Basic Units:

● Size a

● Time t 0 = a / c

● Frequency ν 0 = c / a

● Energy E 0 = h c / a

● Surface Energy Density σ 0 = h c / a 3

● Energy Density ρ 0 = h c / a 4

WUM introduces the Medium of the World, which consists of stable elementary particles with lifetimes longer than the age of the World: protons, electrons, photons, neutrinos, and Dark Matter Particles (DMPs). The existence of the Medium is a principal point of WUM. It follows from the observations of Intergalactic Plasma; Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation; Far-Infrared Background Radiation. There is no empty space (vacuum) in WUM. Inter-galactic voids discussed by astronomers are, in fact, examples of the Medium in its purest. Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation is part of the Medium; it then follows that the Medium is the absolute frame of reference. Relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background rest frame, the Milky Way galaxy and the Sun are moving with the speed of 552 and 370 km·s⁻¹, respectively [13] .

Maxwell’s Equations (MEs) form the foundation of classical electrodynamics. Gravitoelectromagnetism (GEM) is a gravitational analog of Electromagnetism. GEM equations differing from MEs by some constants were first published by O. Heaviside in 1893 as a separate theory expanding Newton’s law. GEM is an approximation to Einstein’s gravity equations in the weak field limit. H. Thirring pointed out this analogy in his “On the formal analogy between the basic electromagnetic equations and Einstein’s gravity equations in first approximation” paper published in 1918 [14] . It allows us to use formal analogies between electromagnetism and relativistic gravity. MEs produce only two physically measurable quantities: energy density and energy flux density [15] .

The value of MEs is even greater because J. Swain showed that “linearized general relativity admits a formulation in terms of gravitoelectric and gravitomagnetic fields that closely parallels the description of the electromagnetic field by Maxwell’s equations” [16] . We emphasize that GEM considers not only interactions between masses but also between mass currents, which produce gravitomagnetic field.

In 2021, G. Ludwig in his paper “Galactic rotation curve and dark matter according to gravitomagnetism” wrote: Most theories used to explain the rotation curve have been restricted to the Newtonian potential framework, disregarding the general relativistic corrections associated with mass currents. In this paper it is shown that the gravitomagnetic field produced by the currents modifies the galactic rotation curve, notably at large distances. The coupling between the Newtonian potential and the gravitomagnetic flux function results in a nonlinear differential equation that relates the rotation velocity to the mass density. The solution of this equation reproduces the galactic rotation curve without recourse to obscure dark matter components. The effects attributed to dark matter can be simply explained by the gravitomagnetic field produced by the mass currents [17] .

WUM is based on Gravitomagnetism. The explanation of the galactic rotation curve made by G. O. Ludwig is in good agreement with the approach of WUM.

The constancy of the universe fundamental constants, including Newtonian constant of gravitation, is now commonly accepted, although has never been firmly established as a fact. All conclusions on the constancy of G are model-dependent. A commonly held opinion states that gravity has no established relation to other fundamental forces, so it does not appear possible to calculate it from other constants that can be measured more accurately, as is done in some other areas of physics.

WUM holds that there indeed exist relations between all Primary Cosmological Parameters that depend on dimensionless time-varying quantity Q that is a measure of the Size R and Age A τ of the World:

Q = R a = A τ t 0

which in present epoch equals to: Q = 0.7599440 × 10 40 and is, in fact, Dirac Large Number (see Section 3.4). WUM is based on two parameters only: α and Q.

Imagine that the World is a Hubble Bubble with a radius R = c τ (where c is a gravitodynamic constant and τ is a cosmological time) and an energy density of a spherical surface σ 0 . With Nikola Tesla’s principle at heart—There is no energy in matter other than that received from the environment—we calculate an energy of the World E W :

E w = 4 π R 2 σ 0

and average energy density ρ W :

ρ W = 3 σ 0 R = 3 h c a 3 R = 3 h c a 4 a R = 3 ρ 0 × Q − 1

that is inversely proportional to R.

The principal idea of WUM is that ρ W equals to the critical energy density ρ c r :

ρ W = ρ c r

which can be found by considering a sphere of radius R M and enclosed mass M that can be calculated by multiplication of critical mass density by the volume of the sphere. When the World has the critical density, the Hubble velocity H × R M ( H = c / R is the Hubble’s parameter) equals to the escape velocity:

2 G × 4 π 3 R M 3 × ρ c r R M c 2 = ( H × R M ) 2

which gives an equation for ρ c r [20] :

ρ c r = 3 H 2 c 2 8 π G

This equation can be rewritten as:

4 π G c 2 × 2 3 ρ c r = μ g × ρ M = H 2 = c 2 R 2

where μ g = 4 π G c 2 is the gravitomagnetic parameter and ρ M = 2 3 ρ c r is the

energy density of the Medium. Considering that H ∝ R − 1 , it is easy to see that the gravitational parameter G ∝ R − 1 . We emphasize that the values of the main cosmological parameters G and H depend on the value of ρ M which is the characteristic of the Medium that is Homogeneous and Isotropic.

Considering equations in Sections 3.2 and 3.3, we can find the equation for G:

G = c 2 4 π × a 4 Q 2 h c × c 2 Q − 2 a 2 = a 2 c 4 8 π h c × Q − 1

The average value of Gravitational parameter G a v of the experimentally measured values [18] :

G a v = G ( 1 ) + G ( 2 ) 2 = 6.674334 × 10 − 11   m 3 ⋅ kg − 1 ⋅ s − 2

allows us to calculate the value of Q based on the value of G a v :

Q = a 2 c 4 8 π h c × G a v − 1 = 0.7599440 × 10 40

In our Model, the World consists of stable elementary particles with lifetimes longer than the age of the World. Protons with mass m p and electrons with mass m e have identical concentrations in the World: n p = n e . Intergalactic plasma (IGP) consisting of protons and electrons has plasma frequency ω p l :

ω p l 2 = 4 π n e e 2 4 π ε 0 m e = 4 π n e α h 2 π m e c c 2 = 2 n e a c 2

Since the formula calculating the potential energy of interaction of protons and electrons contains the same parameter k p e :

k p e = m p ω p l 2 = m e ω e 2 = m e ( 2 π ν 0 × Q − 1 / 2 ) 2

where we assume that ω e is proportional to Q − 1 / 2 , then ω p l 2 is proportional to Q − 1 . Energy densities of protons and electrons are then proportional to Q − 1 , similar to the critical energy density ρ c r ∝ Q − 1 . We substitute

ω p l 2 = m e m p ( 2 π ν 0 × Q − 1 / 2 ) 2 into the first equation and calculate concentrations n p and n e :

n p = n e = 2 π 2 a 3 m e m p × Q − 1 = 0.254810   m − 3

A. Mirizzi, et al. found that the mean diffuse intergalactic plasma density is bounded by n e ≲ 0.27   m − 3 [21] corresponding to the WMAP measurement of the baryon density [22] . The calculated Mediums’ plasma density is in good agreement with the estimated value [21] .

ρ p = n p E p is the energy density of protons in the Medium. The relative energy density of protons in the Medium Ω p is then the ratio of ρ p / ρ c r :

Ω p = 2 π 2 α 3 = 0.048014655

According to WUM, the relative energy density of baryons in Macroobjects Ω M O is:

Ω M O = 1 2 Ω p = π 2 α 3 = 0.024007318

The calculated values of Ω p and Ω M O are in good agreement with their 2015 estimations [23] [24] .

In our opinion, measurements of IGP parameters can be done by investigations of the Fast Radio Bursts, which are millisecond duration radio signals originating from distant galaxies. These signals are dispersed according to a precise physical law and this dispersion is a key observable quantity which, in tandem with a redshift measurement, can be used for fundamental physical investigations [25] .

The dispersion measure and redshift, conducted by E. F. Keane, et al., provide the measurement of the cosmic density of ionized baryons in the intergalactic medium Ω I G M [25] :

Ω I G M = 4.9 ± 1.3 %

that is in excellent agreement with the predicted by WUM value of Ω p = 0.048014655 . Using the equation for n e , we calculated the value of photons’ time delay [26] :

Δ t p h c a l = 2.189 × ( ν 1   GHz ) − 2

which is in good agreement with experimentally measured value [25] :

Δ t p h e x p = 2.438 × ( ν 1   GHz ) − 2

To summarize: the values of the Intergalactic plasma parameters predicted by WUM in 2013 [1] are confirmed by experiments conducted in 2016 [25] .

Analysis of Intergalactic plasma shows that the value of the lowest plasma frequency ν p l is [1] :

ν p l = ν 0 ( m e m p ) 1 / 2 × Q − 1 / 2 = 4.53228   Hz

Photons with energy smaller than E p h = h ν p l cannot propagate in plasma, thus h ν p l is the smallest amount of energy a photon may possess:

E p h = ( m e m p ) 1 / 2 E 0 × Q − 1 / 2 = 1.87433 × 10 − 14   eV

The above value, predicted by WUM in 2013, is in good agreement with the value:

E p h ≲ 2.2 × 10 − 14   eV

obtained by L. Bonetti, et al. in 2017 [27] . Following L. Bonetti, et al. we can call this amount of energy the “rest energy of photons”. In our opinion, it is more relevant to call E p h the minimum energy of photons which can pass through the Intergalactic plasma.

According to the standard Big Bang Model, the photons that existed at the time of photon decoupling (380,000 years after the Big Bang) have been propagating ever since, though growing fainter and less energetic, since the expansion of space causes their wavelength to increase over time.

WUM: Wavelength is a classical notion. Photons, which are quantum objects, have only four-momenta. They do not have wavelengths. By definition, “Black-body radiation is the thermal electromagnetic radiation within or surrounding a body in thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment”.

According to WUM, the black body spectrum of Microwave Background Radiation (MBR) is due to thermodynamic equilibrium of photons with IGP consisting of protons and electrons. It explains why MBR is a perfect blackbody.

ρ e = n e E e is the energy density of electrons in the Medium. We assume that the energy density of MBR ρ M B R equals to twice the value of ρ e (due to two polarizations of photons):

ρ M B R = 2 ρ e = 4 π 2 α m e m p ρ 0 × Q − 1 = 8 π 5 15 k B 4 ( h c ) 3 T M B R 4

where T M B R is MBR temperature. We can now calculate the value of T M B R :

T M B R = E 0 k B ( 15 α 2 π 3 m e m p ) 1 / 4 × Q − 1 / 4 = 2.725245   K

Thus calculated value of T M B R is in excellent agreement with experimentally measured value of 2.72548 ± 0.00057 K [19] .

At the Beginning of the World, the extrapolated value of T M B R 0 at Q = 1 is:

T M B R 0 = 2.1927   MeV = 2.5445 × 10 10   K

Note that T M B R 0 is considerably smaller than values commonly discussed in literature.

Let us proceed to calculate the value of T M B R at different Ages of the World A τ (see Table 1).

Observe that all macroobjects—galaxies, stars, planets, moons—have arisen in a cold World. Our Solar system, for instance, was created when the temperature of MBR was about 3 K. Therefore, any Model describing creation of macroobjects must hold true in cold World conditions.

In 2022, H. E. Luparello, et al. report and analyze the presence of foregrounds in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation associated to extended galactic halos. Using the cross correlation of Planck and WMAP maps and 2MRS galaxy catalogue, we find that the mean temperature radial profiles around nearby galaxies show statistically significant systematic decrease of ~15 μK extending up to several galaxy radii [28] .

In 2023, a new and hitherto unknown CMB foreground was detected [29] . F. K. Hansen, et al. investigate to which extent this foreground may impact the CMB fluctuations map and create the so-called CMB anomalies. Authors create a foreground map model and find a remarkable resemblance between this temperature model map based on nearby galaxies and Planck CMB map. Furthermore, one of the most prominent temperature decrements in the foreground map coincides with the position of the CMB cold spot. The largest scales of the CMB and thereby the cosmological parameters, may have important changes after proper corrections of this foreground component [29] .

These results show observationally that CMB fluctuations are not “primordial”. In frames of WUM, CMB originates from Intergalactic plasma. In our view, CMB anomalies can be explained by Intragalactic plasma in extended galactic halos.

According to WUM, the following parameters of the World depend on Q [5] :

● Newtonian parameter of gravitation G

G = a 2 c 4 8 π h c × Q − 1

● Hubble’s parameter H

H = c a × Q − 1

● Age of the World A τ

A τ = a c × Q

● The Worlds’ size R

R = a × Q

● Critical energy density ρ c r

ρ c r = 3 h c a 4 × Q − 1

● Concentration of intergalactic plasma n I G P

n I G P = 2 π 2 a 3 m e m p × Q − 1

● Minimum energy of photons E p h

E p h = ( m e m p ) 1 / 2 E 0 × Q − 1 / 2

● Temperature of the Microwave Background Radiation (MBR) T M B R

T M B R = E 0 k B ( 15 α 2 π 3 m e m p ) 1 / 4 × Q − 1 / 4

● Temperature of the Far-Infrared Background Radiation (FIRB) peak T F I R B

T F I R B = E 0 k B ( 15 4 π 5 ) 1 / 4 × Q − 1 / 4

The most important parameters in Cosmology are the Hubble’s Parameter H 0 and Age of the World A τ which we can calculate by the following equations:

H 0 = 8 π h c a 3 c 3 × G a v = 68.75084   km ⋅ s − 1 ⋅ Mpc − 1

A τ = a 3 c 3 8 π h c × G a v − 1 = 4.4882037 × 10 17   s = 14.22226   By

We emphasize that the Hubble’s parameter H 0 and absolute Age of the World A τ are determined by the experimentally measured value of G a v !