OJGOpen Journal of Geology2161-7570Scientific Research Publishing10.4236/ojg.2023.135024OJG-125417ArticlesEarth&Environmental Sciences Paleostress Reconstruction from 3D Seismic Data and Slip Tendency in the Northern Slope Area of the Bongor Basin, Southwestern Chad HakroAhmed Suhail1*XintaoYuan2JianlinLi1HongLiu1YuanLiu1CongMa1CNPC International (Chad) Co., Ltd., N’Djamena, ChadGeophysical Research Institute, BGP/CNPC, Hebei, China09052023130553657817, April 202328, May 2023 31, May 2023© Copyright 2014 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc. 2014This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY). http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Paleostress plays a significant role in controlling the formation, accumulation, and distribution of reservoirs, and this could be an important factor in controlling the production of hydrocarbons from the unconventional reservoirs. In this study, we will use 3D seismic reflection data to perform the slip-tendency-based stress inversion to determine the stress field in the basement of the northern slope area in the Bongor Basin. The dataset for this technique is easily available in the oil and gas companies. The stress inversion results from the basement of the northern slope area of Bongor basin show that the maximum principal stress axis ( σ1) is oriented vertically, the intermediate principal stress axis ( σ2) is oriented N18 ° and the minimum principal stress axis ( σ3) is oriented N105 °, and σ2/ σ1 = 0.60 and σ3/ σ1 = 0.29. The findings of this paper provide significant information to understand the fault reactivation at the critical stage of hydrocarbon accumulation and the regional tectonic evolution.

Seismic Reflection Data Slip Tendency Bongor Basin Stress Inversion1. Introduction

Faults and fractures are significant factors in subsurface fluid current in complex geological structures [1] . Fault reactivation is a hot topic in the development of reservoirs [2] , and natural fractures are employed to anticipate the favorable zone for oil and gas exploration [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] . In general, both faults and fractures are considered to be fractures [8] . During the tectonic evolution, rocks may have been experienced a wide range of stress magnitude and orientations, the resulting in rock failure and fractures; thus, the reconstruction of the paleostress plays an important role in precise fracture prediction. In addition, paleostress reconstruction is a crucial approach for studying a region’s tectonic evolution [9] - [21] . Paleostress field investigation is useful to explain fault reactivation [22] [23] , and the timing and designs of fault leakage [22] [23] [24] [25] . Nowadays, a couple of methods have been proposed for estimating Paleostress analysis, such as earthquake focal mechanisms [26] , fault-slip data inversion [27] - [34] . However, these techniques are based on the outcrops and oriented core data. Such data is not easily available in the petroleum companies. Geologists are frequently concerned about the subsurface geological structures, and the data can be easily obtained from the 3D seismic interpretation, which usually does not relate to the field outcrop data.

In this paper, we will use the stress inversion method based on 3D seismic interpretation data, and slip tendency analysis. The method was used to reconstruct the Paleostress tensor in the basement of the northern Slope area of the Bongor Basin. The inversion results can be used to examine regional tectonic evolutions and are an important source of information for determining fault reactivity at the critical stage in the hydrocarbon accumulation.

2. Background of the Study Area

The Bongor Basin is located in the southwestern Chad, north of the middle section of the Central African Shear Zone (CASZ) (Figure 1(a)). On the other hand, this basin is an intracontinental rift basin that formed throughout the Mesozoic and Cenozoic under the influence of the (CASZ). The formation and evolution of this basin are closely related to the evolution of the African Plate, especially the shear zone in Central and West Africa, with typical passive rift characteristics [35] [36] . The Bongor basin covers an area of approximately 18,000 km2. From east to west, this Basin extends for ~280 km long and 40 - 80 km wide, and is divided into four structural units based on the Bouguer gravity, aeromagnetic, and seismic data: the northern slope, central sub-basin, southern sub-basin, and southern uplift (Figure 1(b)) [37] . The central sub-basin is further separated into four depressions Annona Depression, Cola Depression, Mango Depression, and Moul Depression.

The basement of the Bongor basin is composed of Precambrian metamorphic rock, similar to the basement of the Sudan Rift Basin in nature [38] [39] [40] , on which tens of thousands of meters of Mesozoic and Cenozoic continental clastic rock strata are deposited, including the Lower Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Quaternary (Figure 2). According to the characteristics of gravity, aeromagnetic and seismic reflection wave groups and the distribution of regional unconformity, the sedimentary cover in the basin is further divided into two major structural layers: the Lower Cretaceous and the Cenozoic. These structural layers reflect that the tectonic evolution of the Bongor Basin underwent major rift activity,

strong inversion, and a subsequent depression subsidence stage. The lower Cretaceous is the main period for the development of the rift, during which the main source and reservoir rock of the basin were deposited. During the lower Cretaceous, Bongor Basin underwent rapid subsidence in the early (Prosopis and Mimosa Formation sedimentary periods) and slow subsidence in the late (Kabula and Baobab Formation sedimentary periods) stages. About 85 - 80 Ma ago, the Santonian compression event was caused by the collision of the African and the Eurasian plate.

The reversal event, especially in the Bongor Basin is very strong, with the overall uplift of the basin being strong in the west and weak in the east, resulting in a lack of Upper Cretaceous in the basin. Entering the Cenozoic era, the regional stress field underwent significant changes, exhibiting strong extension in the West African Rift System and Sudan region, while thermal subsidence was dominant in the Bongor Basin. Correspondingly, the Termit Basin of the West African Rift System experienced strong subsidence, with a thickness of 3000 meters in the Tertiary strata, while the Bongor Basin had a maximum thickness of fewer than 500 meters in the Tertiary sediments. Therefore, the reservoir formation conditions of the Bongor Basin are similar to the basins of the West African Rift (WAR) and Sudan. There are significant differences between the Muglad Basin and the Melut Basin, as well as the Doba Basin in southern Chad.

The Bongor Basin is dominated by half-graben structures. Main boundary faults are generally striking in the ENE or WSW (Figure 3) and the dip angle of boundary faults and major faults varies from 30˚ to 50˚ but is most prominent at 45˚ in the SE and NW. The structural style in the Bongor basin is the large-scale domino fault blocks formed during the lower Cretaceous expansion and the transpressional inversion anticlines that formed on the hanging wall. The extensional topography has been intact; however, there has been an uplift of around 1500 m, with an 8% shortening ratio for the entire basin and, 20% for the half-grabens of the northern slope. A locally or regionally inverted rift basin would be a good way to describe the Bongor basin [41] [42] with various inversion styles and intensities in different regions of the basin.

3. Methodology3.1. Slip Tendency Analysis

The idea behind slip tendency analysis is that the resolved shear stress and normal stress on a surface are excellent predictors of both the likelihood and the slip direction on the surface [43] . The approach has been used successfully to define fault slip and fault directions [44] [45] [46] . High slip-tendency oriented fractures are frequently more effective flow conduits than low slip-tendency orientation fractures [1] [43] [47] [48] . Stress anisotropy has the greatest impact when a

crack or fracture’s effective stress conditions are close to those needed for slip [49] [50] [51] . However, preferential fluid flow in fault and fracture routes becomes more obvious when the differential stress increases and the region of both faults and fractures with higher slip propensity increases [1] [43] [52] [53] .

In general, Equation (1) defines the slip tendency ( T s ) of a fault as the shear stress ( τ ) to the normal stress ( σ n ) on the surface [43] :

T s = τ σ n (1)

In this study, we derived the equation of extensional regimes. For example, there are three principal stresses σ1 > σ2 > σ3 in space, the Anderson model suggests, there is a major stress axis that is perpendicular to the ground since the Earth’s surface is a principal stress plane.

In the extensional deformation regimes, the maximum principal stress axis (σ1) is oriented vertically, and the intermediate principal stress axis (σ2) and minimum principal stress axis (σ3) are horizontal. The estimate of stress tensor (maximum a posteriori (MAP) is also known as the maximum likelihood and least squares estimations. The relative magnitude of the principal stresses is for the numerical best-fit stress tensor.

These parameters are determined using a 3D stress computer program developed by the Southwest Research Institute (SWRI). The stress regime is defined by the nature of the vertical stress axes:

1) Extensional stress regime when σ2 is the maximum horizontal stress axis and σ1 is vertical.

2) Strike-slip stress regime when σ1 is the maximum horizontal stress and σ2 is vertical.

3) Compressional stress regime when σ1 is the maximum horizontal stress σ3 is vertical.

3.2. Slip Tendency-Based Stress Inversion

The slip tendency values can be used to calculate the likelihood and the fault slip direction on the fault surface. A higher slip tendency indicates the fault is more likely to reactivate, and that there will be more sliding along the fault with respect to time. Therefore, faults with higher slip tendency values accure a larger fault displacement than faults with lower slip tendency. However, there are a few exceptions, there is a fault with a higher slip tendency and slips during the end of the deformation history. As a result, a wide range of fault displacement values could be found in the faults with higher slip tendency. Therefore, the slip tendency can be used as a proxy for fault displacement [54] .

The stress inversion method characterized the degree of agreement between the computed slip tendency values of the stress tensor and the measured displacement values for a set of observed surfaces. In order to assess a candidate stress tensor’s ability to explain the pattern of displacement on the surface of different variable [43] .

4. Results4.1. Data

The northern slope of the Bongor Basin covers an area of ~3200 km2. 3D data for the whole area is available. The original data has been well processed; the seismic volume’s linear spacing is 25 m, the primary frequency is 15 - 30 Hz, and it has been loaded to a workstation and interpreted using GeoEast v.3.3.1. The structural maps of the basement (Figure 4) obtained from the time-depth conversion of 3D seismic interpretation data.

The geometric parameters of fault strike, dip angle and displacement in the basement were measured through 3D seismic interpretation. A total of n = 1123 fault data points were collected from the basement (Figure 4 and Table S1).

Fault Displacement was calculated from the seismic sections that were orthogonal to the direction of the adjacent fault. The horizontal and vertical distances between the footwall and hanging wall were used to compute the fault displacement.

A stereographic projection of faults with various displacement values is shown in Figure 5. The stereographic projection shows that the strike of the fault with larger displacement is in the NE-SW direction, but we can find some lower displacement values in the NW-SE direction, which could be the impact of the pre-existing fault structure in the basement. In general, high-angle faults typically accumulated higher displacement and are easier to reactivate. However, faults with the lower displacement are distributed in the SE-NW (Figure 5).

4.2. Stress Inversion Results

A total of n = 1123 fault points were measured from the basement. The fault geometric parameters, i.e. strike, dip, and displacement which were obtained from the 3D seismic interpretation data to acquire the stress state condition under the slip tendency. In order to analyze this particular dataset, no artificial data are required. Table 1, describes the stress tensor’s maximum a posteriori (MAP) estimation.

The maximum and minimum slip tendency values in the data were recorded in 3D stress. Slip tendency results show in (Figure 6). For each fault point’s the fault displacement and slip tendency values were normalized [53] . The slip tendency values ranged from 0 to 1 allowing a direct comparison of the slip tendency and fault displacement. The Paleostress inversion determines the slip tendency that best corresponds to the fault displacement. The final stress inversion results show that the maximum principal stress axis σ1 is oriented vertically, the intermediate principal stress axis σ2 is oriented N18˚ and minimum principal stress axis σ3 is oriented N105˚, and σ2/σ1 = 0.60 and σ3/σ1 = 0.29.

MAP Stress tensor estimate of basement
Principal stressMagnitudePlunge (˚)Azimuth (˚)
σ1353.690˚23.08˚
σ21990.4˚13.85˚
σ3288−0.2˚6.92˚
5. Discussion

In order to keep the production from the unconventional reservoir. Paleostress plays an important role in controlling and distributing of fractured reservoirs. Nowadays, couples of methods to invert Paleostress, but these methods are still dependent on the outcrop or oriented core data. Those data are generally not available in the oil and gas companies. The slip tendency-based stress inversion approach was previously demonstrated mainly by outcrop data [34] but it hasn’t been used with the seismic reflection data. Previously 3D seismic reflection data was used by [55] to perform the slip tendency based stress inversion through the slip tendency algorithm presented by [54] to identify the stress field of the Xicaogu area in the Bohai Bay Basin. However, we used the 3D Stress software package by the SWRI to perform the Slip tendency-based stress inversion to infer the stress field in the basement of the northern slope area in the Bongor basin. This method is based on the slip tendency and fault displacement and the dataset for this method can be easily collected from the oil and gas companies.

The stress inversion was accomplished based on the fault geometric data obtained from the seismic interpretation data. The fault surface orientation and displacement in the basement of the northern slope area of the Bongor basin were examined. The result shows that the fault displacements of each fault point exist in different areas of the stereographic projection and the faults with higher displacement values, steeper dip angle, and high slip tendency values are easier to reactivate than those faults with low slip tendency and displacement. This relationship provides a fault displacement that can be used as a proxy for slip tendency.

The stress state that best matched the slip tendency values and the fault displacement of the observed surface, the stress inversion was achieved based on the fault geometric data obtained from the 3D seismic interpretation data. The Paleostress inversion results show that the slip tendency has been found especially in the NE-SW direction.

Different stages of evolution were thought to have occurred in the Bongor Basin: a basement-forming period, and a strong setting period in the lower Cretaceous Prosopis and Mimosa formations. A Stable setting period in the lower Cretaceous Kabula, Ronier, and Baobab formation, and thermal precipitation during the Cenozoic. The Cretaceous rifting and Neogene post-rifting thermal subsidence were thought to have occurred in the Bongor Basin. The basin strike-slip regime is characterized by the west-northwest, east-southeast striking faults; these faults primarily controlled the deposition of lower Cretaceous sediments in the Bongor Basin, indicating that the faults may have been related to pre-existing basement faults and reactivated during the lower Cretaceous. This phenomenon might be connected to the basement faults reactivating as a result of the strike-slip movement of the Central African Shear Zone. The cumulative fault displacement during the tectonic or stress event was different, but the slip could accumulate on randomly oriented, potentially pre-existing faults.

The slip tendency-based stress inversion method opens a new and intriguing view point on paleostress analysis. Some modern software, such as Trap Tester, Move Midland Valley, can also be used to estimate the paleostress. This method is currently undergoing additional development and testing.

6. Conclusion

Based on the fault geometrics and displacement obtained from the 3D seismic interpretation data, stress inversion was then obtained by determining the stress state that best matched with the slip tendency values and the displacement of measures surface. The Paleostress inversion results show that the maximum principal stress axis (σ1) is oriented vertically, the intermediate principal stress axis (σ2) is oriented N18˚, the minimum principal stress axis and, (σ3) is oriented N105˚, and σ2/σ1 = 0.60 and σ3/σ1 = 0.29. The results show a strong correlation, indicating that most of the faults trend towards the northeast and southwest on the northern slope of the Bongor Basin, and could be related to pre-existing basement faults that were reactivated in the lower Cretaceous because of the strike-slip movement of the Central African Shear Zone.

Acknowledgements

This research work was supported by the China National Petroleum Corporation (No. CNPCIC-CT-2002-008).

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Author Contributions

H.S.; X.Y.; contribute to conception and design of the paper. J.L.; contributes to program, H.L.; analyze the fault kinematics. Y.L.; C.M.; contribute to seismic interpretation. All authors contributed to manuscript revision, read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

Cite this paper

Suhail, H.A., Yuan, X.T., Li, J.L., Liu, H., Liu, Y. and Ma, C. (2023) Paleostress Reconstruction from 3D Seismic Data and Slip Tendency in the Northern Slope Area of the Bongor Basin, Southwestern Chad. Open Journal of Geology, 13, 536-578. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2023.135024

Appendix Details of faults data collection points from basement. n = 1123 fault data points was selected to measure the strike, dip, horizontal slip, vertical fault throw and displacement. For location, see the <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig4">Figure 4</xref>
Fault NoFault data pointsStrike˚Dip˚Horizontal Slip (m)Vertical Fault Thrown (m)Displacement (m)
11.1155.079.17378.4761.13383.3750354
11.2160.317.43436.5756.9440.2623932
11.3174.8920.7509.12192.39544.2582902
11.4197.7821.24550.81214.13590.968115
11.5197.9521.74590.72235.61635.9734196
11.6194.2935.46579412.34710.8201429
11.7202.1635.21523.61369.46640.8339283
11.8190.1538.06552.8432.76702.0463358
11.9199.9933.56898.78596.151078.517645
11.10197.0948.06569.38633.69851.9134936
11.11183.0347.1527.05567.23774.2942434
11.12190.0254.52560.96786.91966.3868116
11.13187.8150.12571.4683.86891.1579319
11.14183.0334.2560.16380.75677.3107028
11.15195.8135.94505.33366.38624.1736243
33.1222.3176.0947.4191.37197.1528263
33.2231.6581.7756.63391.72395.7922628
44.168.7143.14649.35608.42889.8484809
44.265.8264.85299.6638.23705.0515534
44.344.8653.75691.45943.041169.370576
44.438.3560.2651.91138.091311.572513
44.546.4758.6723.861192.991395.420524
44.61973.59324.221101.111147.850966
44.7323.0582.09121.45874.57882.9625062
44.8316.3981.81115.51802.29810.5626467
44.936675.29270.241029.161064.048854
55.1203.1682.3338.91288.86291.4688452
55.2182.5783.0940.46333.98336.4218364
55.3156.3382.842.39335.34338.0086207
66.1216.7624.973.133.9380.59066261
66.2184.5823.2767.9129.273.92163486
77.1350.2972.8582.18266.3278.6920207
77.240.3174.12103.46363.63378.0618316
77.336.413.0684.6419.6386.88651506
77.450.4320.7473.3627.7878.44372505
77.553.1615.08134.6236.27139.4204336
77.649.9517.72105.1933.61110.4290188
77.722.4638.7768.1954.7687.45589574
88.17.9850.13229.06274.2357.2871725
88.2345.36.18182.6319.78183.6980275
88.312.7125.11314.87147.56347.7313194
88.466.0754.02117.16161.37199.4160036
88.539.6167.8789.04218.93236.343958
88.6350.7846.56147.67155.93214.7570576
1010.1198.2670.5566.13187.27198.6031969
1111.1339.8665.627.0959.7265.57702723
1111.2359.0667.75130.27318.48344.0926958
1111.319.7237.87119.8593.18151.8108524
1111.480.4859.52114.64194.76225.9951044
1111.522.7971.0397.02282.2298.4119977
1111.67.1876.6388.26371.33381.674988
1212.1195.7486.0861.78902.26904.3726422
1212.2193.3282.8367.39535.32539.5450996
1212.3183.7784.4256.27576.06578.8017247
1212.4170.681.187.66559.96566.7799195
1313.1339.3779.1639.03203.84207.5429751
1313.213.5778.94116.44595.93607.1991753
1313.3343.0978.76150.67758.49773.3101118
1313.414.0564.07294.37605.35673.128754
1414.1231.7781.2233.74218.34220.9315351
1414.2222.2483.3934.47297.47299.4604845
1515.18.63.7149.193.1949.29332815
1515.29.2412.6569.8515.6871.58830142
1515.3352.1552.4984.91110.61139.4427488
1515.415.0916.8857.3917.4159.97266211
1515.516.5429.95189.56109.23218.778853
1515.6358.2326.14277.59136.21309.2076522
1515.744.4952138.52177.29224.9878541
1717.1232.3461.7432.2760.0268.14509007
1818.17.9168.2744.86112.54121.1514391
1818.217.7267.4560.36145.35157.3847264
1818.38.1365.7557.73128.17140.5713406
1818.43.723.99111.9449.81122.5218336
1818.5353.6633.73169.93113.45204.321089
1818.610.548.62272.04308.83411.5601177
1818.72.8539.4198.16162.77256.4399706
1919.1201.9830.2557.7833.6966.884561
1919.2183.8273.9849.98174.12181.1512484
1919.3139.7485.3649.92615.09617.1124002
2020.1343.0451.33259.78324.65415.7923411
2020.2332.6862.13148.71281.25318.1449773
2020.3350.0660.68453.64807.74926.408742
2020.4323.0450.71445.59544.59703.6538326
2020.5357.639.82399.9969.25405.9403436
2020.618.817.47356.5546.74359.6005146
2121.1187.0247.92901.71998.551345.430424
2121.2226.854.691191.491682.122061.352982
2121.3225.86551154.231648.692012.56692
2121.4232.5753.381218.331639.022042.232736
2121.5208.9744.381572.291538.522199.804454
2121.6199.833.522245.051486.872692.774016
2121.7246.6837.772224.051723.242813.530611
2121.8242.744.581757.661732.162467.741263
2121.9218.340.231467.911241.861922.752201
2121.10186.8745.471137.961156.731622.645141
2121.11183.8738.421273.981010.621626.154305
2121.12205.8538.161679.921320.292136.655539
2121.13195.0136.071732.591261.862143.398882
2121.14195.7931.411817.971109.922130.008762
2121.15185.78231869.05793.382030.467859
2121.16193.2625.972043.47995.432273.026732
2121.17210.7828.871879.751036.212146.436868
2121.18201.6633.211411.62923.941687.108813
2222.1354.917.8550.616.9851.08906439
2222.229.298.6465.349.9366.09024512
2323.1228.8349.7449.8858.977.18305773
2323.2214.1439.8350.3842.0165.59713789
2323.3190.7852.93106.11140.47176.043043
2323.4200.6272.7981.68263.75276.1081036
2424.1254.9578.31105.01507.51518.26007
2424.2229.3582.4578.98595.82601.0318734
2424.3192.9383.6987.04786.78791.5798949
2424.4194.2480.2256.41327.41332.233948
2424.5203.8181.8242.83297.83300.8938647
2525.1243.8482.0940.54291.83294.632382
2525.2167.8978.1766.01315.21322.0476117
2525.3188.1273.77115.23395.99412.4148797
2525.4200.2771.24106.49313.54331.1305659
2626.121.3213.56138.8933.51142.875303
2626.260.2117.91133.3143.07140.0949
2626.345.6330111.6264.44128.8857556
2626.428.44.2697.957.398.22164985
2626.529.7618.789.130.1594.06291777
2727.1357.9521.83237.5795.15255.9160554
2727.2354.3911.37283.2856.98288.9537659
2727.353.7225.98392.46191.24436.574838
2727.447.0229.45540.13305.02620.3044553
2727.526.8729.36580.48326.57666.0367822
2727.640.8716.79673.71203.23703.6956707
2727.729.8531.73377.54233.48443.902424
2727.8340.0741.26593.37520.6789.3746366
2727.932.5524.841043.74483.161150.146414
2727.1033.9113.781141.36279.921175.18418
2727.1123.1422.851029.26433.631116.875608
2727.1219.0832.96993.97644.61184.687942
2727.1320.7927.93987.99523.671118.192519
2727.1430.625.47958.62456.611061.812129
2727.1533.7810.96785.7152.11800.2886617
2727.1611.4719.71770.83276.21818.8228459
2727.17345.8842.91550.32511.52751.3353531
2727.1810.2555.74374.1549.21664.5166921
2727.1910.2567.67206.95503.96544.7971954
2828.132.6464.67306.15646.72715.5239904
2828.257.0162.3312.66595.46672.5540032
2828.337.4656.52400.62605.8726.2850848
2828.416.2565.39541.281181.911299.959725
2828.566.4362.831011.461970.672215.082748
2828.6331.2219.251065.22371.91128.274461
2929.1177.1340.98531.92462.07704.5903571
2929.2158.0628.88488.29269.31557.6333923
2929.3188.245.06603.19604.41853.9025847
2929.4203.2954.4541.05755.64929.3690936
2929.5193.1651.89792.861010.671284.55472
2929.6229.5458.58797.161305.151529.339919
2929.7217.8367.53503.041216.521316.423242
2929.8220.9967.38398.51956.261035.974617
2929.9239.0853.61362.82492.34611.5856669
2929.10229.8256.72347.79529.85633.7972125
2929.11205.7262.91338.31661.54743.0268015
2929.12202.4859.58378.74645.07748.0369593
2929.1320155.46361.21524.73637.0355069
2929.14205.4951.55350.62441.61563.8739012
2929.15173.2548.32294.02330.18442.11604
3131.1337.9614.24618.1156.86637.693241
3131.2347.8914.461184.69305.471223.438726
3131.3349.4712.441531.79337.941568.624891
3131.47.2717.051678.55514.691755.686731
3131.5359.4520.051825.19666.211942.97563
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