Important structural features of the teacher labor market, such as recruitment and selection processes and terms of employment, shape the teaching workforce and, consequently, have potentially strong implications for the quality and equity of education (OECD, 2019) [1]. Understanding the teacher labor market, including the factors shaping teacher demand and supply, teachers’ responsiveness to incentives, the trade-offs governments face in defining the number of teachers needed, and the mechanisms that assign teachers to institutions. In schooling, the demand for teachers depends on a range of factors such as the age structure of the school-age population, enrolment rates, starting and ending the age of compulsory education, average class size, and the teaching load of teachers. Teacher education, employment and working conditions and job opportunities outside schooling influence supply. Some countries face diversity (gender and ethnic) issues that can undermine children’s development. Other countries face teacher shortages due to aging staff; to address these and increase the quality of the teaching force, countries are now seeking more flexible approaches to entry into the profession. Vocational education and training in some countries similarly need to find ways to compensate for a shortage of teachers and trainers as the current workforce approaches retirement age. As in schooling, flexible entry requirements and alternative pathways may help solve this problem. On the other hand, school systems in various countries have a significant oversupply of qualified teachers, which raises its challenges.

A 2005 report statement by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2005) [2] revealed a point of agreement among the various studies that many important aspects of teacher quality are not captured by the vastly used indicators such as qualifications, and tests of academic ability and experience. Further stating that the teacher characteristics that are harder to measure but are very vital to student learning and academic achievement include the ability to;

・ create effective learning environments for different types of students;

・ convey ideas in clear and convincing ways;

・ be enthusiastic and creative;

・ foster productive teacher-student relationships;

・ and to work effectively with colleagues and parents.

However, teacher policy needs to ensure an adequate supply of teachers that matches demand and that the best available candidates are selected for employment. Individual institutions, including those in disadvantaged areas, have the teachers they need. These are challenging tasks considering the size of the teaching workforce. Ensuring that effective teachers stay in the profession and removing ineffective teachers through transparent and accepted procedures are further concerns to providing a high-quality workforce. Terms of employment and working conditions, including possibilities for career advancement, play a crucial role here. Teaching is often characterized as a “flat” career with few opportunities for career progression. While countries may seek to diversify teachers’ jobs, career structures can also be counterproductive if the most experienced teachers are promoted out of the classroom (OECD, 2016 [3]; 2019 [1]; 2011 [4]).

One of the founding fathers of Nigeria’s national educational policy framework defines education as the “processes by which a child or an adult learner develops the abilities, attitudes, and other forms of behavior that are of positive value to society they live. That is to say, education is a process of disseminating knowledge either to ensure social control or to guarantee the rational direction of the society or both” (Fafunwa, 1987) [5]. This means that, regardless of tribe, race or family background, every child has the right to a sound and quality education in the society where they live, as education contributes to the growth and development of societies in Nigeria and the globe at large (FRN, 2007) [6]. However, a study carried out by Okoroma (2006) [7] opines that the issue of falling standard of education and the inability of the Nigerian educational system to meet its desired goals and standards becomes a matter of distress to every reasonable citizen. Over the years, the gap between national educational policies and goal attainment has been due to inadequate implementation policies, which has become a great concern to many observers. Okoroma (2003) [8] also comments that education is a distinctive way society induces its young generation into full membership or involvement. Every society needs well-structured educational policies and implementation plans to guide it in the process of such initiation. The three levels of Nigeria’s education sector have passed through different stages with various goals and objectives.

The Portuguese traders and early missionaries introduced education in Nigeria to convert to their religions and make Nigerians understand their language to facilitate their trades. The colonial government later developed an interest in the education of the citizens out of the necessity to train law enforcement agents, interpreters, clerical officers, messengers, cooks, stewards, servants, typists, and invariably refined enslaved people (Oke & Odetokun, 2000) [9]. Many efforts have been put in place to develop education, especially the tertiary sector in Nigeria since her independence in 1960. Various policies in the interest of promoting education for the country’s development have also been formulated; unfortunately, little or no desired effect has been produced from these efforts. Before the return of civil/democratic rule in 1999, the Human Development Index of Nigeria, especially its educational indicators, ranked poor (Federal Ministry of Education, 2003) [10]. Most Nigerians expected that democratic rule would improve key growth indicators, including poverty reduction, low mortality, good governance, and high-quality education (Suraj and Olusola, 2011) [11].

Indeed, between 1999 and 2015, successive Nigerian governments introduced a series of policies and programmes to improve governance in general, including policies and programmes relevant to the six objectives of the Education for All (EFA) programme. The Collaboration between the Nigeria Federal Ministry of Education (FME) and other line ministries like Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) and International Development Partners (IDPs) in response to global education reforms brought some successes in enhancing enrolment at the pre-primary and primary education levels. However, the conditions of education in Nigeria are still wretched. Nigeria is known as the great giant of Africa in terms of resourcefulness as a significant oil and gas producer. However, most Nigerians live below the poverty line of one dollar per day. Ordinarily, Nigerian leaders want the country to stand out best in everything, including education. However, political will has been lacking. Perhaps this is a result of the instability of governments or lack of continuity. Between 1960 and 2022, the country has had several governments (Table 1).

In 62 years, Nigeria has had fifteen heads of State, out of which one was named by the Colonial monarch president and only five democratically elected. Others came through military groups, which show that most Nigerian heads of state had never had time to draw up plans of action before drafting themselves or were drafted into leadership. Therefore, they have been ill-prepared for any development efforts, whether in education or other spheres. Most of their actions have not national patriots but for personal aggrandizement (Hodges, 2001) [13]. Hodges (2001) went further in the final analysis, stating that Nigeria’s development failures have sprung from the lack of success in achieving an effective governance model. So, various governments formulated educational policies, but political instability discouraged the political will to implement such policies. As new governments came in succession, continuity in policies implementation is not guaranteed; this has affected educational policy implementation in Nigeria.

The formulation of each educational policy level sets the stage for its implementation, which, according to Ukeje (1986) [14], is perhaps the most crucial aspect of planning. Unfortunately, educational policies and goal attainment in Nigeria have been irreconcilable due to implementation problems, which have caused significant constraints on the welfare of the teacher labour market. Perhaps this

Tablesourced from the office of the secretary to the government of the federation (OSGF, 2022) [12].

clarifies the observation made by Governor Oyakhilome of Rivers State in an address sent to the Nigerian Association for Educational Administration and Planning Convention in 1986 when He expressed his utmost concern about the problem of policy implementation, stating: We know it is challenging to realize planned objectives one hundred percent. However, the experience in planning education in the country indicates an alarming gap between planned objectives and attained outcomes. As professionals in the sector of education, it is imperative to identify whether those critical gaps are brought about by the results of faulty planning or faulty implementation (Oyakhilome 1986: 2) [15].

The gaps between policy formulation and implementation arouse investigations to identify factors that constrain the effective implementation of educational policies in Nigeria and its implications on the teaching workforce. The problem of policy implementation is attributable to the planning stage, which comes immediately after policy formulation. However, every good planning will ensure effective implementation and positive outcomes. Good planning that can facilitate effective implementation should consider factors such as the planning environment, political environment, social environment, and financial and statistical problems. The plan must consider the needs of the society; the political, socio-cultural, economic, military, scientific, and technological realities of the environments that are also fundamental to its survival. Similarly, despite the creditable objectives and structure of education in Nigeria, all indications point to the fact that the Nigerian system of education failures is on a yearly increase which has been majorly attributed to problems of policy implementation. This review is carried out to indicate the factors constituting problems of policy implementations in the Nigerian educational system and its influence on the welfare of the teacher labour market through an extensive discussion and review of literature on Nigeria’s education policy implementation.

Educational policies are the principles or formulated laws and rules that govern the operation of every educational system at all levels. Education occurs in many different forms for many purposes and through many institutions. Thus, an educational policy can directly affect the education of the people engaged at all levels of education. According to Thomas, Emilie and Wayne (2018) [16], educational policy analysis is the scholarly study of educational policy that seeks to answer questions about the purpose of education, the objectives that are designed to be attained, the methods for attaining them, and the tools for measuring their success or failure. According to Okoroma (2001) [17], educational policies are initiatives primarily by governments that determine the direction of an educational system. According to UNESCO (2015) [18], educational policy consists of the principles and government policies in the educational sphere and the collection of laws and rules that govern the operation of education systems. From the above definitions, the researchers believe that every modern society needs some educational policies to guide it in such initiation towards achieving the purpose and objectives for which educational institutions were established.

Implementation is defined as the act of executing a plan, a policy or an assignment. Ogbonnaya (2003) [19] views implementation as the process of carrying out objectives or a plan. It is the process of performing a task, activity or objective. Nweke (2015) [20] defined implementation as the ability to put law or policy is also a tool or means of making something that has been officially decided to start to happen or be used. According to Ibiam (2011) [21], implementation means putting into use or practicing the government or organization’s policy as applicable. It is the realization of an application, plan, ideas, model, design, specification, standard, or policy (Rouse, 2007) [22]. The action must follow any preliminary thinking in order for something to happen. Hrebiniak (2006) [23] asserted that the failure of many implementation processes often stems from the lack of accurate planning and coordination in the beginning stages of the project due to inadequate resources or unforeseen problems that may arise. Implementation, therefore, connotes the activities of transforming ideas and policy into an identified objective.

Education policy can be understood as the actions taken by governments concerning educational practices and how the governments address the production and delivery of education in each given system. Admittedly, some promote a more comprehensive understanding of education policy ?i.e., acknowledging that private actors or other institutions such as international and non-governmental organizations can originate educational policies (Espinoza, 2009) [24]. Education policies cover a wide range of issues such as those targeting equity, the overall quality of learning outcomes and school and learning environments, the capacity of the system to prepare students for the future, funding, effective governance or evaluation and assessment mechanisms, among others (OECD, 2015) [25].

An interesting question is whether the education policy implemented is the same as the one formulated by policymakers. The following distinction drawn in Adams, Kee and Lin (2001) allows for some reflection: “Rhetorical policy refers to broad statements of educational goals often found in national addresses of senior political leaders. Enacted policies are the authoritative statements, decrees, or laws that give explicit standards and direction to the education sector. Implemented policies are the enacted policies, modified or unmodified, as they are translated into actions through systemic, programmatic, and project-level changes.” (2001, p. 222) [26]

If the “implemented policies” correspond to “enacted policies, modified or unmodified”, then the implementation process can hardly be limited to executing a decision.

The theoretical background of this conceptual study framework is built on four dimensions for effective educational policy implementation (smart policy design, inclusive stakeholder engagement, conducive context, and coherent implementation strategy) (OECD, 2017) [27]. This framework was proposed for an implementation advisor or policymakers who would intervene when an education policy must be implemented at the national or regional level. It can be used as a threshold for support and analysis in launching and implementing an education policy. Smart policy design: in analyzing the smart policy design, OECD, (2017) [27] stated that a policy that offers a logical and feasible solution to the educational policy problem would determine whether and how it can be implemented. For instance, if a new school curriculum requires the use of high technology equipment that is not affordable by schools, the policy may fail to be implemented unless some budget is available at the national or local level. Inclusive stakeholder engagement: the process stakeholders’ recognition and inclusion in the implementation process is crucial to its effectiveness. For example, engaging teacher unions in discussions early in the policy process will benefit long-term. Conducive institutional, policy and societal context: An effective policy implementation process recognizes the influence of the existing policy environment, educational governance, institutional settings, and external context. Implementation is more likely to take effect when the context is acknowledged. Coherent implementation strategy to reach schools: This strategy outlines concrete measures that bring all the determinants together in a coherent manner to make the policy operational at the school level.

As shown in Figure 1, the coherent implementation strategy in the centre is surrounded by the determinants that influence and shape the implementation processes. It is a central tool to stir the implementation process, but a well-designed strategy is not sufficient to guarantee effective implementation. The process is piloted by a group of actors close with or mandated by policymakers to reach specific objectives. However, actors can influence it at various education system points, such as schools, parents, local or regional education authorities. It must also be noted that education policy implementation is embedded in the structures of a given education system at a given time, with particular actors, and around a specific educational policy (OECD, 2017) [27]. The central role of context shows that “there is no one-size-fits-all model” for implementing education policy. One must thus pay attention to the specificity of the policy, stakeholders and local context to analyze or make recommendations about the process. However, a common framework can help to structure the analysis and guide the implementation process.

1) Launch of proper implementation of the national teacher education policy. The federal government should work hand in hand with the Federal Ministry of Education to improve the quality of the teaching profession in Nigeria to review, relaunch and implement the rigid National Teacher Education Policy, which should be maintained or enhanced for the development of education. This policy should be held at a minimum level even when a new government is in place. Implementing change in teacher education policy should be carefully done and evaluated by qualified education policymakers and not elite in the government.

2) Policy implementation that prioritizes Teacher Education welfare through concrete professional development programs that support teacher acquisition and development of current knowledge of their professions should be carried out.

3) Policy implementation that prioritizes teachers’ welfare through the provision of conducive learning Atmos firm, appropriate housing allowance, early payment of teachers’ wages, and provision of incentives and research grants for teachers should be implemented.

4) Full constitutional rights to change teacher education policies should be handed over to institutions such as the national teacher’s Institute (NTI) and the teacher’s Registration Council of Nigeria (TRCN) since they are qualified elites in teacher education policy formulations.

5) Finally, educational policies should not be revised based on political sentiments; the federal government of Nigeria should place premium importance on education by meeting the UNESCO recommended standard of 26% national budget allocation to education.

Monitoring and maintaining minimum standards will not work in an atmosphere of non-payment of teachers and other staff in the education sector. Sometimes, universities and secondary schools are shut down for several months due to strike actions, and no learning occurs. Essential education for emancipation is given haphazardly when teachers eventually resume work, and maintaining standards becomes impossible. These factors are also responsible for the high level of brain drain in Nigeria, as financially able students, lecturers, and scholars always opt to study abroad and later develop no interest in returning to Nigeria. Additionally, several education sectors have overlapping functions and responsibilities, making it very difficult to have a clear-cut demarcation of who does what (Akanbi & Jekayinfa, 2019) [73]. Ajulor (2018) [74] advocated the need for governments to 1) devote more money to the education sector, 2) curb corruption, ensure transparency and accountability in the education sector, 3) restructure the sector to ensure that the functions and responsibilities of various government agencies are clearly established 4) consider the critical role played by private providers in the education delivery system; 5) ensure that the policy formulation process is participatory; and 6) decrease the politicization of education ministry roles and a level of involvement in the education delivery system; The high turnover of the Federal Ministry of Education’s leadership for successful implementation and continuity of policies.

This paper concludes that the lack of successful implementation of educational policy in Nigeria’s institutions of education, majorly caused by insufficient funding, has led to the inability to meet desirable educational standards, goals and objectives even in the 21 century. It is thus recommended that the federal government of Nigeria should work hand in hand with expertise in the formulation and analysis of educational policy to re-assess both past and current factors that constrain effective education policy implementation and how negatively it affects the welfare of the teacher labour market in Nigeria. Then, reinforce positive change. It is also recommended that newly formulated policies resulting in a change of government should not be forced on people without proper consultation. As Borko & Putnam (1995) [75] rightful postulated that the most critical factor contributing to students’ academic achievement is the quality of teaching received. The importance of the epistemic community and the masses’ influence on policy cannot be overemphasized. Thus, the interest of these groups cannot be taken for granted. A question to bear in mind is, “if interest is contrary to the benefit of the target group or the supposed beneficiary of the formulated policy, what happens”?

The author declares no conflicts of interest.

Adanne, E.F. (2022) The Problems of Educational Policy Implementation and Its Influence on the Welfare of Teacher Labor Market in Nigeria. Open Access Library Journal, 9: e8868. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1108868