In this study, the new explosive and effusive mechanisms of eruptions were suggested. Both mechanisms are based on the presence of ⁴⁰K nuclear thermal layer under the lithospheric plates at 600 km depth [1]. New mechanism for strong eruptions is connected with new inner structure of Earth based on the theory of buoyancy of elements and new K-Th-U structure of Earth. Criticisms of the old Earth’s model and geoneutrino experiments can be found in [1] and [2]. Now we only note that the possibility of registration only fuel elements (²³²Th and ²³⁸U) casts doubt on advisability of carrying out the long and expensive experiments such as the KamLAND and Borexino Experiments. Thus the attempt to restore Earth’s structure by using geoneutrino experiments ended unsuccessfully before beginning of these experiments.

Due to the presence of a fuel nuclear layer of ⁴⁰K, which is allocated at depths of ~600 km, on boundary between upper and low mantle, the earlier abstract theories of subduction and continental drift obtained understandable and obvious physical meaning. However the author believes that presence of ⁴⁰K, which it is possible to name figuratively as “thermal nuclear bomb” or “hellish pan” is as much surprise for most volcanologists. The current volcanology for effusive eruptions, which is based on the subduction of lithospheric plates, must be revised right after revising the subduction theory and theory of continents drifts. Note that it is a fundamentally new geophysics and new volcanology.

This ⁴⁰K fuel layer is the basis of new volcanology and seismology theory, subduction and continental drift. Highlights that the geoneutrino teams did not recognize their mistakes, more than these losers do not nominate the author on the Nobel Prize for discovery of the role of ⁴⁰K. This great discovery is made so casually with the help of the Archimedes buoyant theory and periodic table of elements. In this situation author strongly recommends visit Turkish public baths, and in them remember about Eureka and Archimedes buoyant law. Based on buoyant theory and presence and ⁴⁰K hot fuel layer a new theory of effusive mechanism of eruptions is developed.

However, the author believes that not everyone has realized and understood how great discoveries are made. Therefore, the author recommends recalling the other great discovery of the Archimedes’ lever. In Section 4 a new theory of explosive mechanism of eruptions also is suggested and it is investigated a correlation between explosive eruptions and planetary configurations. However in this work it was supposed that planet configuration is the reason of activation the ⁴⁰K nuclear layer and of rapid increasing of pressure in the magmatic layers under lithospheric plates which lead to explosive eruptions.

The purpose of this study is to find out how different activation mechanisms of the ⁴⁰K thermal nuclear layer, located at a depth of 660 km, lead to different types of volcanic eruptions. The results of the study have a fundamental value for geosciences, and purely practical value for volcanology, seismology and climatology.

In [1] and [2] it was shown that the ⁴⁰K fuel layer is allocated on the border of upper mantle and low mantle disarranges and revisions several up-to-date geosciences theories. This hot fuel layer is a part of the multi layers K-Cs-Th-U terrestrial reactor, see Figure 1.

This ⁴⁰K layer is presented in the enlarged scheme of effusive mechanism of volcanic eruption is draw in Figure 2. The labels in Figure 2(a) with numbers (1), (2), and (3) are corresponded to the plate shift, subduction and effusive mechanism of eruption. The buoyancy theory and separation process of elements and isotopes were presented in right site of Figure 2(a) by label number (4). As it can be seen from Figure 2(a), a piece of the lithospheric plate (1) slowly sinks into the magma and when it reaches the hot ⁴⁰K nuclear layer, it begins to melt. The melting products float up and form a mountain range and network of erupting volcanoes (3). This process is slow and gradual, and it mainly corresponds to effusive mechanism of eruptions. Fundamentally new in this description is the presence of heated nuclear layer. Now we will consider in more details, what processes the presence of a ⁴⁰K layer will lead to.

As it is known, the chemical composition of volcanic gases is mainly determined by water vapour, CO₂, CO, N₂, SO₂, SO, S₂, H₂, NH₃, HCl, HF, H₂S, CH₄, H₃BO₃, Cl and Ar, that is, it consists of the chemical elements presented in the upper part of the periodic table (Figure 2(b)). This fact can be quite simply explained by the fact that the hot nuclear layer forms a thermocline (thermopause), which on the one hand prevents global convective processes, and on the other separates the elements located in the periodic table above and below the ⁴⁰K fuel layer. Light elements, such as Mg, Al, Si and S, will float up, and elements heavier than K, such as Fe and Ni, will sink down, Figure 2(a). Thus, in volcanic ashes, gases and lavas, sulphur compounds are found in large quantities, but elements, such Ag, Au, Pt or more heavy Th and U, are extremely rarely found, due to they allocated deeply into the Earth.

Further, it is interesting to note that chemical compounds such as FeS or Ni₂Si, consisting of chemical elements located above and below potassium, will dissociate into atoms in the hot layer: some of which will float upward, while others will sink into the interior of the planet.

F e S → F e + S → F e ↓ + S ↑ N i 2 S i → 2 N i + S i → 2 N i ↓ + S i ↑ (3)

Therefore, such species, as FeS and Ni₂Si, if present inside the planet, they will be in limited quantities. It can also be concluded that the widely used Bulk Silicate Earth (BSE) model is applicable only within the upper mantle, since all volume of silicium, will float upward.

In connection with the discussion of FeS and Ni₂Si, the following question arises: On what basis is it assumed that the Earth’s core consists of iron? In the framework of modern geophysics, there is no answer to this question. In this question, geophysicists refer to astrophysicists, who in turn refer to specialists in reactors and accelerators. In this situation, it seems difficult to find the arguments that formed the basis of this statement. Recall that, according to modern Galactic Chemical Evolution (GCE) models, iron cannot be synthesized in the solar system, since the solar reactor is very weak, capable of synthesizing mainly hydrogen and helium [14] [15]. Iron should be synthesized on stars with a mass of 8 - 10 solar masses (M_star ~ 8 - 10 M_solar). However, the transfer of large amounts of iron and nickel to the solar system, followed by the formation of the Earth’s core, which, according to most modern geophysical theories, consists mainly of iron and nickel, is surprising.

The author with surprise finds out that the transfer equation is absent in galaxy chemical models (GCE). Note that for 80 years of the existence of GCE models, none of the astrophysicists asked a question about the transfer equation. The error is visible even in the name of the models Galactic Chemical Evolution (GCE), so these models are not Galactic Chemical Transport (GCT) models.

According to up-to-date GCE models all heavy elements including gold, platinum, and silver should be synthesized on stars having the powerful reactor, on different stars and after transferred to Earth and allocated in the oldest geological falls. Therefore an actually the theory of terrestrial ores origin is absent.

Moreover, no such elements, as iodine, cesium and uranium, were found in the spectrum of the Sun [16] [17] [18] [19], so there is a problem of “exclusive delivery” of these elements to Earth. As used here the “exclusive delivery” means that delivery of elements from other remote stellar systems (Neutron Stars, NS) was carried out passing the Sun, Venus, Mars and the Moon. Probably astrophysicists seriously believe that uranium was transported to the solar system with the help of alien spacecrafts. Also, if we say about exclusive distributed, we can suspect an alien in each pharmacist, who sold us a bottle of iodine. It is clear that such conclusion following from the astrophysical GCE models can raise a smile. On the other hand the absence of the ores origin theory as well as the water synthesis extremely adversely affects on the image of geophysics.

In this section we have considered the nuclear ⁴⁰K layer activation at subduction process, by pressure of the lithospheric plate. In the following section we will consider process of activation of this layer by the planetary impact.

After the text edit has been completed, the paper is ready for the template. Duplicate the template file by using the Save As command, and use the naming convention prescribed by your journal for the name of your paper. In this newly created file, highlight all of the contents and import your prepared text file. You are now ready to style your paper.

In this Section it was shown that alignment interference has common nature and affects not only to Earth but also could affects to Sun. It was demonstrated on the example of two most powerful solar super storms. Another reason for considering solar storms is that the vortexes are clearly visible in the perturbations.

On July 23, 2012, at about 0208 ± 2 minutes UTC, the level solar activity suddenly increased and the Sun sent an unusually strong interplanetary coronal mass ejection [26] [27] [28]. This fact of the solar eruptions was well recorded by STEREO A and B satellites [29]. During the time of the solar eruptions at 2012 July 23, STEREO A and B were 121.3˚ west and 114.8˚ east of the Earth, at a distance of 0.96 AU and 1.02 AU from the Sun, respectively. The extremely high solar wind speed of 2246 ± 110 km∙s⁻¹ and an unusually strong ejecta magnetic field of 109 ± 1 nT were observed near 1 AU by STEREO A [27] and in Figure 6(b). The planet alignment for the Solar Super Storm at July 23, 2012 was shown in Figure 6(a).

At 6 September 2017, 12 UTC the strong Sun flare was happened, which correlated to the X9.3 class. The SOHO satellite image (image number #PIA21949)

of this strong Sun flare was presented on Figure 6(d). The planet alignment at this moment at September 6, 2017 12 UTC was Saturn-Sun-Venus, see Figure 6(c).

Summarizing previous two Sections we could write next.

First, we show that the explosive terrestrial volcano eruptions and the solar protuberances have same physical nature. Secondary, previously nobody has paid attention that the subduction can partially explain only the sluggish ongoing continuous eruptions, but it does not fit to explanation of explosive volcanic processes. Note that the subduction occurs continuously, but very slowly. Thirdly, the vortex structures are clearly visible in the solar protuberances. Therefore it is possible to come out with the assumption that explosive eruptions probably took place due to suddenly rising up pressure after generation terrestrial protuberances under the lithospheric planes. The process of explosive eruptions, which we concretize below, is schematically illustrated in Figure 7.

In this study new explosive mechanism of volcano eruptions at the planet alignments was discovered. However such a mechanism can be called as “new” with a big stretch, since similar statements was known for a long time. In this situation we look back in the history of astronomy and below wrote some words about Archimedes’ lever and Kepler conjunctions.

In the end of Bronze Age alignment phenomenon was called as Orion belt principal. Thus the astronomer Moses who lived in Minor Asia in the 12 century BC give next trick definition of Orion’s belt principal, see Bible’s Book of Job 38:31:

“Can you bind the chains of the Pleiades? Can you loosen Orion’s belt?” (4)

In Ancient Europe this phenomenon was known since Thales of Miletus and Pythagoras as a Theory of Music. Thus we highlighted that the Pythagoras-Plato gravitational waves and its interferences were known in Europe since the times of Thales of Miletus and Pythagoras. Later Aristotle mentioned in passing about relation between seismic activity and cosmos. In the Roman Empire the alignment phenomenon was called as Archimedes’ lever principal, e.g. [30] [31]. The Archimedes lever, are correlated to linear scheme (L-type), which was presented in Figure 5(a). According to Pappus of Alexandria, Archimedes’ levers mind next, (Archimedes, Syracuse, 287-212 BC):

“Give me a place to stand and with a lever I will move the whole world” (5)

If to move further on a historical scale we will remember that Neo-Platonism conflict led to dramatic events. As it is know, Hypatia, the daughter of the famous mathematician and astronomer Theon, lived in Alexandria in 350/370-415 AD. According to historical records, she taught mathematics and astronomy in the Neo-Platonism academy. One of her students failed to pass the geometry exam, became angry with Hypatia, killed her, and set fire to the world-famous library in Alexandria.

Remembering Hypatia, famous for her treatises on Neo-Platonism, we recall the following. There is an amazing feature in Greek philosophy, and this focus is that Greek philosophy, unlike the philosophy of the East, in particular from the Confucius doctrines, does not teach us wisdom, that is, how to live correctly, but teach us how to doubt the truth of one’s knowledge properly. Thus the conflict between followers and opponents of alignment phenomenon is extending more than several thousand years; from time to time it calm down and flush up again.

In 1606 Kepler investigated the planet alignment phenomenon. Note that after Kepler [32] the author is not first who recently try to investigate this question. Early, like this in 1971 Gribben in [33] suggested that earthquakes were correlated with sunspots or planetary alignments. Later Gribben in [34] also claimed that the level of solar cycle activity is influenced by the alignments of the planets, through tidal interactions with the Sun. The effect of planet alignments on the earthquakes and sunspots was called as “Jupiter effect”, a name coined for the heliocentric alignment of all the planets on the same side of the Sun [35]. Several criticisms on “Jupiter effect” were published by Meeus, Ip and Hughes [36] [37] [38] [39], with replies of Gribben and Plagemann [40] [41] [42].

In 1997 Geller wrote a critical review about earthquake prediction [43] [44]. Further in many studies the attempts were performed to find a way out of the crisis. However, it is necessary to notice that mostly researches again wrote about tidal effect at planet alignment: see [45] - [57], and references in them. The geophysicist’s community conclusion on planetary-solar-terrestrial interaction was summarized in Mörner et al. in [58]. Thus the J. Kepler work [32] is not forgotten.

Therefore the crisis which has long history at present also parallel slowly ripens up inside the different branches of astrophysics. Like this in the solar activity the planetary variations are known till 1980. However, this phenomenon is ignoring by astrophysicists. Secondary, since 2005 the astrophysicists started to ban all publications about Titius-Bode law. Although in the wave mechanics it is well known, that interference maxima are observed at integer values between interference distances. However, such “numerology” is not in honors by some astrophysicists. Note that, the generalized Titius-Bode law is useful at describe the planet formation in the Solar System, formations of Saturn’s rings and spatial distributions of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus satellites and also is using to predict positions of Plutinoes (objects behind Pluto, in the Kuiper belt). During last years the development of new astronomical observation methods allowed determining the distribution of exoplanets nearby the remote stars. So the crisis spread to the newest exoplanets investigations.

Thirdly, in 2013 the wildest incident happened, the journal of Pattern Recognition in Physics was closed due to publication results of Kepler conjunctions. It can be argued that three well-known astronomers, namely Archimedes, Johannes Kepler and Johann Elert Bode, are fall a victim to modern “Holy Inquisition”. Their sculpture and portraits and their works are presented in Figure 8.

Unfortunately, we must state that any mention of Pythagoras, Plato, Archimedes, Hypatia, and Kepler evokes violent emotions for some modern astrophysicists from panic to madness and the desire to close scientific journals and burn libraries.

In this study, the new mechanisms have been presented a new theory of effusive and explosive eruptions. This theory is based on the theory of the buoyancy of the elements and isotopes, and on the presence of a hot ⁴⁰K fuel nuclear layer at a depth of 660 km on the upper-lower mantle boundary.

The main results:

r1. The effusive eruptions

The permanent, quiet burning of the ⁴⁰K layer provides a simple explanation for these effusive eruptions. In work, it is specified that when pieces of the lithospheric crust are immersed in the ⁴⁰K zone, they are melting with dissociation chemical compounds and next separation on heavy and light elements. Elements are heavier than potassium sink down deeply into the planet, while elements lighter than potassium float up. Thus, a simple explanation is given for why only light elements are mainly present in volcanic gases, ash and lavas. This is determined by the presence of a thermocline at the boundary of the upper and lower mantle and shallow convection in upper mantle. Also, this theory gives a simple explanation why volcanoes mainly allocate along subduction falls on the fixed distance from it.

r2. The explosive eruptions

It is suggested that explosive eruptions occurred at a sudden disturbance of the ⁴⁰K fuel layer as a result of external influence from the solar system. The 38 explosive eruptions with VEI more than 4+ which took place between 1600 and 2020, and also two strong solar storms were investigated. In all studying cases the explosive eruptions occurred at the planet alignments. The Sun, Venus, Earth, Mars and Jupiter participate in 14% - 16% from the total account of studying alignments (Table 4). Note that the L-type planet alignments, in which Earth was involved, were observed in 25% of cases (Table 5). The multi alignment type, when there are recorded more than one planet alignment, was presented in ~14% of total account of studying alignments. The Sun-type alignments, in which Sun was conjoins with planets, also were recorded in 30% of total account. Thus the L-type and Sun-type alignments are dominated at the strong volcanic eruptions.

r3. In astronomy

In this work, it was shown that the planet alignment affect not only on natural processes on the Earth, but also impact on the Sun activity. Based on the comparison phenomenon on the Earth and Sun, we get new mechanism to rising up pressure under the lithospheric planes.

Further it was shown that planet alignment phenomenon does depend neither on planet mass nor from the relative positions of planets. Also this phenomenon does not depend on the distance between planets. So it is possible to come out with the assumption that phenomenon has inertial nature. Moreover the strong eruptions often were observed at the presence of integer spatial ratios of distances between planets. Thus it is possible wrote about interference effects will occur when the distances between planets are multiplied.

The creation vortex in solar protuberance gives us a slight hint that the wave processes during the alignment of the planets are associated with the exchange of gravitational spins. However it is only a guess, since we cannot visually observe the second vortex in the magma under the lithospheric plates.

Author is grateful to the Ancient Greece and Minor Asia philosophers, astronomers and mathematics for teaching how to make great discoveries.

The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

Safronov, A.N. (2022) New Theory of Effusive and Explosive Volcanic Eruptions. International Journal of Geosciences, 13, 115-137. https://doi.org/10.4236/ijg.2022.132007

The supporting materials, included Figures S1-S19, could be requested from the author or obtained by Research Gate System. The planetary alignments for these Figures are described above in Tables 1-3 in the text of the manuscript.