Controlling biohazards and pandemics in the construction sector is a critical issue that has piqued the interest of public health, environmental engineering, and civil engineering professionals. Despite the wide range of environmental professionals, there is still a challenge in containing the current Corona Virus pandemic in COVID-19 from 2019 to 2021 [1] [2] [3] [4]. However, the control cuts across from the pandemic era to the post-pandemic era [5] [6] [7]. The pandemic has also been noted to have affected the educational system globally [8], specialised workplace attitudes and general mental health [9], and crisis-driven governance of the populace [10] [11]. Despite that it has also affected the globe, there have been some progress made by various disease control organisations over the years. These lessons learnt include other epidemics and pandemics ranging from SARS COV-2, Ebola Virus to COVID19 pandemic [12] [13] [14] [15]. There are also environmental concerns that are related to pollution of plastics from disposed nose marks, and face shields during COVID19 pandemic era [16] [17]. There are also concerns that these plastic wastes are harmful to the ecosystem [18] [19] [20] [21]. As such, both the environmentalist and the environmental engineer are tasked with resolving various environmental issues. These issues include atmospheric pollution, the control of water, soil, environmental sanitation and the social and environmental impact of these solutions. Based on the management aspect, these include the control of pandemics, the control of arthropod-borne diseases, the elimination of industrial health hazards, and the effect of technological advances on the environment. Different researchers have recommended that some policy protocols be considered in the construction industry for both biohazards and pandemics like COVID19 using nose masks [22] [23] [24].

Generally, the engineers are concerned with the challenges, concepts, awareness, utility, management of engineering facilities and development of new technologies [25] [26] [27] [28]. These technologies are used to develop construction materials like pipes and hoses [29] [30] [31] [32] as well as 3D-printed face shields [33] [34] [35]. During the pandemic, the engineers were tasked with developing innovative solutions such as additive manufactured face shields [36] [37], incubators [38] [39] and other assistive technologies [40] [41] [42]. Also, new techniques have also been developed by bio-engineers based on COVID19 [43] [44]. However, these developments have increased the issues such as plastic wastes and electronic wastes in the environment [45] [46] [47]. Thus, proper waste disposal, waste control and recycling attitudes [47] [48] [49] are recommended in the pre and post COVID19 pandemic era. Having a solid public health of the populace is every nation’s most valuable asset, and it is the basis upon which the people’s whole production capacity is built [50]. Over a decade ago, Essenberg [51], reported that about 180,000 workers die and 110 million are injured in workplace accidents each year, but this has decreased in recent times. Occupational health and safety is well structured in developed nations. However, in developing countries, it is on the average, substantially worse than in developed countries [50]. According to Seagle [52], this is due to a lack of resources in the context of an economic downturn, the implementation of remedial and preventative actions to improve occupational safety and health, and management’s attitude toward worker health and safety [53] [54] [55]. Construction workers are exposed to a variety of health and safety hazards. These could include exposure to materials that can cause serious sickness and have a long-term effect on the worker’s health. This study aims to raise awareness about the potential biological risks of several common materials that construction workers may come into contact with on the job. Large wood dust particles, for example, can readily become stuck in the nasal canal and are known to cause nasal cancer in woodworkers. Figure 1 shows the route of entry of biohazards in the human body. Inhaling wood dust reduces lung function, which leads to chronic lung illness. Solvents, like other chemicals, may be utilised in a variety of construction-related

operations. Furthermore, asbestosis is a lung defect caused by exposure to a dusty environment, particularly in harsh weather or at an asbestos production factory. Solvents evaporate quickly. Exposure to liquid or vapour forms can have both long-term and short-term health consequences for workers. The health effects will be mostly determined by the chemical in the solvent and the amount of time spent in contact with it. Solvents are primarily inhaled, however they can also be absorbed through the skin. Short-term solvent exposure can result in headaches, nausea, sleepiness, and dermatitis. A worker’s kidneys, liver, and skin may be permanently damaged if they are exposed to a solvent on a regular basis. Solvent exposure can cause personality changes, sleep difficulties, short-term memory loss, and dementia, and the toxic effects on the neurological system are a major worry. By definition, a hazard is a situation that offers a risk to life, health, property, or the environment. Chemical Hazards, Biological Hazards, Environmental Hazards, Health Hazards, Natural Hazards, Fire Hazards, and Workplace Hazards are the broad categories of hazards. However, the focus of this study will be on biological risks. An organism, or a chemical derived from an organism, that poses a threat to (mainly) human health is referred to as a biological hazard or biohazard [56] - [63]. Biohazards are samples of microorganisms, viruses, or toxins (from a biological source) that can pose a threat to human or harm the human health. They could also arise from medical wastes or other trash dumps and it may also contain compounds that are toxic to animals [64] - [69]. Rodents, insects, bacteria, viruses, moulds, yeasts, and fungi are examples of biological risks. Infections, allergies, and poisoning can all be caused by them [70]. A proper understanding of biohazards and pandemics by the public as well as political leaders is required for effective control against the damage caused by biohazards. Biohazards can be managed at the source (engineering control), from the source to the worker, and at the workplace (environmental control) [71] - [79].

This paper explores the management of biohazards and pandemics in the construction industry, taking Ibadan as a case study. Section 1 introduces the concept of biohazards and pandemics. Section 2 presents the materials and methods for the study. Section 3 presents the results while Section 4 discusses the results. Section 5 presents some policy implications while Section 6 presents the concluding remarks. The main objectives are to identify potential biohazards and pandemics like COVID-19 pandemic having Corona Virus as a current global concern. Also, the study identifies preventive actions to be taken and to selects appropriate control measures for biohazards and pandemics to promote higher quality of health and safety, as well as safer worksites in the construction industry.

During the course of this study, researchers visited a number of construction sites in Oyo State where some construction activities were underway at the time of the data collation. Photographs were taken at a few of the locations. The site engineers were asked how they manage biological threats on their properties. The response showed that they were in charge of biohazards in general, but that not everyone was aware of them. Table 1 shows the results of the survey. It can be observed that site safety by the usage of muster points has the highest adherence of 88.57%, while the lack of insurance and the lack of routine health checks was the least at 37.14%. These findings will be detailed in Sections 3.1 - 3.12.

The questionnaires were given to three different types of businesses: small, medium, and large. Highway, building, water/environmental, geotechnics, and other specialisations were among the companies examined (antenna erection, mast installation, metal fabrication, dam construction, and quarry sites). Building operations were reported as the main type of construction work by 37.14%,

closely followed by highway activities at 34.29%. This is depicted in detail in Table 2, Figure 4 and Figure 5.

The construction industry involves both the civil engineers and the service engineers-mechanical, electrical and environmental engineers. While the civil engineering discipline includes highway, building, water/environmental, geotechnics, and other operations, environmental engineering now includes aspects of public health, landscaping, and drainage control. Every construction company has employees; the number of employees or the size of the workforce in a construction company is the population size of the company. For the sake of this analysis, ranges 1 - 50 are considered small, 51 - 149 are considered medium, and ranges between 150 and more are considered large. According to the responses to questionnaires about the size of their firms showed that 60% are small businesses, 25.71% are medium businesses, and 14.29% are large businesses (see Table 3, Figure 6 and Figure 7).

Any engineering job should have muster sites, warning signs, and an effective danger communication approach because safety is paramount. Table 1 and Figure 22 showed that the majority of construction enterprises had warning signs and muster points to control dangers, with 88.57% of respondents saying “yes”.

In the construction industry, the usage of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) and clothing is critical. Depending on the nature of construction, this may include nasal masks, hand gloves, work aprons, helmets, and goggles. Table 1 also shows that 65.71% of respondents agreed that PPEs should be used. PPEs used in the control of biohazards and pandemics are seen during the recent COVID19 pandemic. These typical PPEs include face shiels, nose masks and eye googles, as seen in Figure 19. The use of PPEs like face masks have helped in controlling the spread of COV19-19 [22] [23].

Some construction businesses strive to save money by not hiring HSE personnel and trained health personnel such as nurses, putting the lives of their employees in jeopardy. The response to the use of personal protective equipment (PPEs) was 42.86%, which is not good because PPEs should be used more frequently.

In the event of an emergency, the first-aid kit is quite useful. This is also critical on all construction sites, as some biohazards, such as asthma, are fast-acting and life-threatening. As demonstrated in Table 1, construction companies with a first-aid box on site have a response rate of 62.86%. This also demonstrates that not all construction firms have first-aid kits on hand. As the popular saying goes, “health equals riches.” Workers should be checked on a regular basis, as this is critical in the construction industry’s biohazard control. Table 1 also demonstrates that just 37.14% of construction firms that undergo routine inspections respond, which should be improved.

During any construction activity on a construction site, there is generally a site house, but there isn’t always a comfort room for the workers, thus some are forced to relieve themselves in the bushes nearby. As stated in Table 1, the response rate for construction companies with toilet/bathroom facilities on site is 57.14 %. Typical state of construction sites in Ibadan is seen in Figure 23.

The notion of insurance coverage in the construction industry is not widely understood in developing countries like Nigeria. Employees should be well-insured, therefore insurance coverage should be encouraged. As seen in Table 1, just 37.14% of employees responded to the insurance policy. Additionally, every construction enterprise is vulnerable to one or more hazards. As demonstrated in Table 1, construction organisations that have had workers exposed to biohazards had a response rate of 42.86%. Engineering is a high-risk profession, and as a result, biological risks can arise during construction. Some of these hazards cause accidents, necessitating compensation for affected employees. According to the analysis, 54.29% of construction firms have reimbursed impacted workers, as indicated in Table 1.

A Safety Officer must be appointed if there are twenty (20) or more employees, according to the Health and Safety at Work Act of 1974. Periodic inspections of scaffolding, plant supplies, and the working environment are his job to verify that there are no obvious hazards. He is also in charge of documenting accidents and, if necessary, reporting them to the Head of Management. The majority of construction organisations use standard operating procedures that are in compliance with HSE statutes and other occupational health standards. To avoid accidents or injuries, the working environment of a building site should be kept clean, as shown in Table 1, with the majority of construction businesses responding Yes to following standard guidelines. A maxim states that “a man who is not informed is deformed”. Since education is dynamic, seminars and workshops should be held to sensitise and educate construction industry employees, clients, and government parastatals about the control of biological risks in the industry. The seminar/training will comprise health education via movies, toolbox talks, training on the use of personal protective equipment (PPE), PPE selection and replacement, hazard communication, and warning signposts in high-risk regions during a risky engineering exercise. The suggestion was favourably received by the respondents, with 60% of the responses being “Yes”, as indicated in Table 1.

In view of the current study, the following are hereby recommended for the various stakeholders on the control of biohazards:

1) Government:

● They should provide a unified legislative and policy framework for occupational health and safety in the sector, as well as ensure that requirements are followed.

● They should give information, guidance, and training on hazards, their control, and prevention; careless employers should be shown that they would attract severe fines, loss of liberty, social stigma, high compensation claims, or loss of licence if they do not follow the rules.

● The World Bank and development organisations have the ability to affect labour norms and working conditions on construction sites all around the world.

● The construction sector should be inspected on a regular and mandatory basis by the authorised agencies for the safety and general wellbeing of the workers.

2) Employer:

● They should encourage worker participation in company health and safety policies and risk management systems; due to downsizing and outsourcing, there are now a lot of precarious and informal contractual conditions, so the construction industry is dealing with subcontracting and bogus self-employment.

● They should ensure that suitable standards for preventing blood-borne infections are in place, as well as proper PPE use.

● They should teach each employee how to spot and avoid dangerous situations.

● There should be mandatory employers’ liability insurance for all site workers.

● They should participate in workforce capacity training in terms of skills and health and safety, as well as skill certification and prior learning recognition.

● They must be dedicated to and adhere to labour standards, and they must demand that all subcontractors and suppliers observe them.

● All construction sites must include first-aid boxes and trained health personnel and/or HSE personnel for temporary relief in emergency situations.

● A complete personal and family medical history should be provided. Recreational activities, personal habits such as alcohol and cigarette use, nutritional considerations, the existence of chronic diseases, and the use of medicine by construction workers’ employers should all be given special consideration.

3) Association of Contractors and Clients:

● They should make certain that all management and supervisory personnel on their locations have demonstrated expertise in occupational health and safety, as well as management and supervisory abilities.

● They should ensure that all employees have verifiable skill levels, taking into account occupational health and safety.

● They should ensure that all contractors follow labour laws;

● There should be effective communication and coordination between contractors and workers, including training; and

● Tender documents must include provisions for safety, health, and welfare, and all contractors should incorporate these in their cost estimates.

● Each contractor on site should have their occupational health and safety targets audited.

● In the construction business, there should be a regular health promotion programme and safety education training seminars for workers on how to control and prevent biological dangers.

4) Regulatory Bodies, like HSE, OSHA, ILO, CDC and WHO:

● They should promote clean care of equipment and work garments.

● They should ensure the provision of PPEs.

● They should advise on laundering work clothes and procedures on handling.

● They should promote hand washing hygiene using hand gels and hand sanitisers.

● They should also manage prevention and control of infections.

● They should promote the maintenance of clean and safe work environment.

● They should ensure that social distancing is maintained to control the spread of coronavirus, as seen during the COVID-19 pandemic.

With respect to the study on biohazards and pandemics, this study presents some recommended COVID-19 protocols for the construction workers. Based on some factors from current guidelines on COVID-19 pandemic, the following advices hold:

● Wearing a nose mask

● Using personal protection measures

● Wearing an eye-protective shield

● Wash your hand with soap frequently

● Avoid hand touching of your nose, mouth and eyes

● Covering the nose and mouth with a tissue when you cough/sneeze

● Good etiquette/manners

● Appropriately dispose the “used tissue paper” after sneezing/coughing

● Wash your hand immediately after sneezing/coughing

● Perform hand hygiene

● Avoid close contact with others

● Avoid sharing PPEs like hard hats or helmets

● Contact precautions such as social distancing of 2 meters

● Avoid group meeting and avoid coming closer with others

● Social distancing when feeling unwell

● Adapting prompt actions by protecting others.

● Surrender to health officials when on notice the symptoms.

● Doing regular COVID-19 tests if symptoms appear.

● Abiding by quarantine, shielding or self-isolate as adviced.

● Workplaces should have relevant COVID-19 notices, door markers and floor markers to show directions, exit signs, 2m social distancing signs, etc.

● Workplaces should provide necessary hand hygiene points like hand sanitizers, hand gels, medicated liquid soaps, disposable nose masks, etc.

Biohazards are intimately linked to environmental and occupational health risks, according to this study on the management of biohazards and pandemics in the Construction Sector. This also demonstrates that while engineers on the job are aware of health and safety regulations (HSE), not all engineers on the job are 100% safety concerned. As a result, all construction enterprises must employ trained health professionals and HSE personnel. Second, biohazards can be avoided through a variety of operations in sectors other than health, infrastructure, energy, and agriculture. Housing, water, sanitation, drainage, transportation, urban development, and energy projects could prevent a high percentage of disability adjusted life year (DALY) loss and the construction industry’s mortality rate. In addition, the recent COVID19 pandemic also affected construction work, as well as the living standard and mental health of the construction workers.

One of the outcomes of the present study is that the majority of organisations ensure that basic standards and norms are followed on the job, although not all of them. All sites should also have first-aid and other medical services. Since health is so important in the construction sector, there are health and safety laws and regulations in place, such as the 1974 Health and Safety Act. According to the findings of this study, only roughly two-thirds of the construction companies surveyed employ PPE and protective apparel (PPEs). In the construction sector, personal protective equipment (PPE) such as nose masks, helmets, hand gloves, and work aprons will aid in the control of bio-hazards such as asthma, cancer, and asbestosis. Lessons learnt from the recent COVID19 pandemic include social distancing, proper hand hygiene (the use of hand gels, hand santizers, and hand washing), and going for COVID-19 test if you feel unwell, to protect others. Such acts will ensure a better public health. Finally, industrialised countries have greater health than poor countries, and as a result, they have better control over biohazards and pandemics. Using Ibadan in Nigeria as a case study from a developing country, the study discovered that the percentage of people who have routine check-ups is considerably lower than the percentage of people who don’t get routine check-ups, which requires some improvement. In practically every sampled worksite in Ibadan’s construction industry, there were also few or no insurance plans. This study also recommends that construction companies are key into having better insurance and health plans for their workers.

The author acknowledges the technical support from Lancaster University Engineering Department, Lancaster, UK and University of Ibadan, Civil Engineering Department, Ibadan, Oyo State. The support of Engr. Daniel Ekadi of Bayelsa State Works Ministry, Nigeria during the conduction of the field study in Ibadan is highly appreciated. The authors also appreciate the respondents on the questionnaire. The authors also appreciate CWEEE for the waiver on the APC charges for this submission.

The Department of Engineering, Lancaster University, UK is highly appreciated. In addition, the funding of Overseas Scholarships by Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC) is also appreciated, as well as the support of Standards Organisation of Nigeria (SON), F.C.T Abuja, Nigeria.

The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

Amaechi, C.V., Amaechi, E.C., Amechi, S.C., Oyetunji, A.K., Kgosiemang, I.M., Mgbeoji, O.J., Ojo, A.S., Abelenda, A.M., Milad, M., Adelusi, I. and Coker, A.O. (2022) Management of Biohazards and Pandemics: COVID-19 and Its Implications in the Construction Sector. Computational Water, Energy, and Environmental Engineering, 11, 34-63. https://doi.org/10.4236/cweee.2022.111003