A survey was carried out in the different Districts of Benin in order to collect information on the knowledge, the different forms of uses, the traditional practices of production, the processes of storage or conservation. It also helped to identify the importance of chilli pepper in the diet of the Beninese population without forgetting to identify the different techniques (traditional and modern) used to prevent and control fungal contamination of chilli pepper in the field and after harvest. For this purpose, a questionnaire was developed taking into account the different ethnic groups, religions, age, gender and other specific selection criteria. The survey lasted 3 months and concerned mainly chilli pepper producers. Six departments where chilli pepper is produced were visited. These were the departments of Ouémé, Plateau, Zou, Atlantique, Littoral and Collines (Figure 1). In each department, at least two Districts were visited and in each

District, at least two villages were visited to interview producers who were selected at random. The only exclusion criterion was a minimum age of 15 years. In total, 240 people were surveyed. The information collected from respondents was expressed as percentages. In each District, the heads of the Regional Agricultural Production Centers (CERPA) were approached to identify the villages where chilli pepper was produced.

Data were collected using participatory research evaluation tools and techniques such as direct observation, producer groups, farmer organizations and individual interviews. These participatory research evaluation tools based on a questionnaire have been used in similar studies [12] [13]. Interviews were conducted in the local dialect spoken by producers with the help of interpreters in some areas. Some key questions were considered throughout the questionnaire. These included questions related to cultivation methods, storage equipment, storage and preservation processes, the type of processing done before or during storage of the chilli pepper, contamination patterns, and methods of protection against contamination. Questions were also asked about the risks associated with endogenous consumption of chilli peppers, knowledge of mold contamination, and the criteria used to visually identify the presence of mold on chilli pepper.

The survey forms were processed manually and the data were encoded using Microsoft Excel 2016. In order to achieve the objectives of the study, descriptive statistical analysis was performed on these data according to the different parameters evaluated (age, gender, ethnicity, level of education, cultivation practices, storage or preservation practices, perception on molds) using SAS (Statistical Analysis System) software version 8.1.

Socio-economic characteristics and data on the varieties of chilli peppers grown in the study area were presented in Table 1.

This study was conducted in Benin and involved 240 producers who were surveyed in the districts, arrondissements and villages of the six departments mentioned, namely: Ouémé, Plateau, Zou, Collines, Atlantique and Littoral. The districts of Adjohoun, Dangbo, Aguégué, Missérété, Ifangni, Kétou, Sakété, Abomey, Bohicon, Dassa, Savè, Savalou, Cotonou, Semè Kpodji, Abomey-Calavi and Allada were surveyed in the six departments. The lowest number of respondents per department was 25 and was recorded in the Littoral Department, while the highest number of respondents (60) was recorded in the Ouémé Department. The largest total area cultivated by a producer is 3 hectar and is obtained in the department of Ouémé precisely in the district of Adjohoun, in Hlankpâ

while the smallest cultivated area (50 m²) is obtained in the department of Littoral precisely in Cotonou.

This enormous difference in the area planted can be explained by the immense availability of land and swamps in the Ouémé Valley, but also by the enthusiasm of villagers for chilli pepper cultivation in this very rural area where agriculture is practiced to a great extent, unlike Cotonou, which is a highly populated urban area where agriculture is almost no longer practiced because of the evolving lack of suitable land for agriculture.

The results of this survey show that not all the producers surveyed belong to a farm group. In fact, only 30% of the respondents belong to a group and the other seventy don’t belong to any agricultural group. This could be explained by the unavailability of producers in these rural areas due to cultivation practices, which they mistakenly consider more important than the practical training they should receive in groups to improve the quality of their production. Also, only 28% of producers have received training, compared to 72% who acknowledge that they have not received any training on technical production, storage, conservation and even on the health risks associated with the consumption of poor quality chilli peppers. Of the 28% of respondents who had received training, 80% acknowledged having received training on the technical production of chilli peppers, 12% on the technical storage of chilli peppers and 8% on the technical conservation of chilli peppers. It should be noted that no producer has received training on the risks related to the sanitary quality of chilli peppers. This confirms the lack of monitoring of producers by certain competent structures of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (MAEP) such as the National Agricultural Research Institute of Benin (INRAB), the Central Laboratory of Food Safety (LCSSA) and the Beninese Agency of Food Safety (ABSSA), which could accompany producers and train them on the sanitary risks of foodstuffs such as chilli pepper. These trainings are very important because they would allow producers to have an idea of the relationship between the consumption of agricultural products of poor sanitary quality and the risks of food-borne diseases that could result from them, such as intoxications, food-borne toxi-infections, etc. These trainings would force producers to become aware of the risks and to respect the technical itineraries of production, storage and conservation in order to obtain finished products of very good sanitary quality.

The chilli peppers, used as a condiment or spice, are well known in Benin by women, men and different ethnic groups. This observation confirms that of Fett [26] who indicated that chilli peppers are the best known spices and condiments. Women (60%) are more consumers of chilli pepper than men (40%). These results confirm those of Amiot-Carlin [27] and Blanck [28] who indicated that fruits and vegetables are more consumed by women. The different ethnic groups regularly consume chilli pepper. These results are in agreement with those of Amiot-Carlin [27] who noted the importance of ethnicity (Hispanic, Asian or African-American) in the consumption of vegetables through an American study. These results are also consistent with those of Johnson [29] and Rodriguez-Burruezo [30] who discussed the place of chilli pepper in Indian cuisine and its growing importance in ethnic restaurants in Europe and Africa. According to the survey results, chilli pepper is consumed daily for its nutritional (65%) and sensory (35%) properties, among which the hot taste is the most important, followed by its aroma. Sauces are the most frequent modes of consumption (56.02%) followed by grilling (28.98%) and the treatment of diseases by herbalists (15%) because of its medicinal properties that are an integral part of the values attributed to it. Constipation would be at 16%, the most treated affection by the varieties of chilli pepper followed by gastroenteritis (10%). This information collected on the chilli pepper justifies its importance and its rank among the vegetable crops. The aroma, fragrance or smell of chilli pepper always stimulates its consumption according to the respondents. These results support those of Avaloz De La Cruz [31], who in a sensory analysis showed that the color, pungency and aroma of fresh or cooked chilli pepper fruits regardless of variety were the descriptors that had a positive influence on the general acceptance of a food [29] [32]. The main culinary modes of chilli pepper remain sauces and grilling which are characteristic of African peoples with a preference for hot (cooked) dishes. One of the main reasons for consuming chilli pepper is the pungent and irritating taste that gives a hot sensation in the mouth. In fact, chilli pepper is usually consumed in several forms. It is consumed as fresh fruit or as fresh fruit transformed into paste just after harvesting, but also as dried fruit transformed into powder for the preparation of different foods. These results are in good agreement with those of Reifschneider [16] who showed that chilli pepper is consumed in fresh, dried, whole or powdered form all over the world. According to the respondents, chilli pepper is also known as a taste enhancer for local foods and dishes consumed in Benin [4]. Indeed, the main interest of chilli pepper lies in its physicochemical composition which varies according to varieties and environmental conditions [33] [34]. Its richness in antioxidants among which is capsaicin is actually the property that gives it a great neutraceutical value [35] [36] [37]. In many cases, fruit coloration with the presence of natural dyes in the flesh also determines fruit antioxidant activity [17] [38]. According to Kopta [39], in the hottest year of 2018, most cultivars responded by increasing fruit weight and consequently yielded higher total yield per plant with very good sources of vitamin C for all chilli pepper varieties studied. Indeed, the potential yield of a chilli pepper crop depends on the variability of fruit number, size, fruit size and other parameters per plant such as average fruit weight. Also, capsaicin in chilli pepper fruits has been shown to be distributed throughout the fruit with a higher concentration found in the placental tissue of the seeds and is used to treat severe chronic diseases, migraines, osteoarthritis or to lower cholesterol levels [38] [39] [40]. This capsaicin content is further influenced by several factors such as water stress level, rainfall, plant age, fruit size, increase in cultivation temperature, solar radiation [38] [41] [42].

The results of this survey show that molds are the most known contaminants of field grown chilli pepper. According to growers, various colors of molds are observed directly in the field and after harvest on the three varieties of chilli pepper grown in the study area (Figure 4). These are generally gray, white, black, greenish-black, yellow, green; blackish; light blue; beige and greenish. 90% of the respondents admitted to having a general knowledge of molds, while 10% had never heard of them. Also, of the respondents who knew about molds, 84% admitted to seeing them in the field on the varieties they grew and the rest (16%) had never seen them in the field. In addition, some molds produce mycotoxins,

which are the products of their secondary metabolism. Unfortunately, almost all of the respondents (90%) do not know anything about mycotoxins and do not know that there is a relationship between molds and mycotoxins. It also appears from the information that aflatoxin is the mycotoxin known by all the respondents (100%) who have knowledge about mycotoxins.

This low level of knowledge of producers about molds and mycotoxins can be explained in part by the very low level of education or literacy of producers. On the other hand, it is due to the lack of training given to producers on cultivation practices, storage or conservation procedures and health risks. Indeed, 70% of the respondents have never received any formal training, compared to 30% who have. Of those who have received training, 24% have primary education, 4% have lower secondary education and the remaining 2% have upper secondary education. In fact, the chilli pepper is particularly sensitive to diseases such as viruses caused by aphids and thrips, but also fungal diseases such as aspergillosis, Alternariosis and Fusariosis etc. These results are consistent with those of Orobiyi [6] and Fondio [43] who showed that chilli peppers varieties are victims in the field by fungal diseases, bacterial diseases, viruses but also pests. Crop rotation, which is carried out by alternating the cultivation of chilli pepper with crops of other botanical families such as tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), eggplant (Solanum melongena), nightshade (Solanum nigrum) etc., helps to break the life cycle of crop pests, diseases [11] [44]. The presence of molds on chilli peppers varieties in the field is due to poor cultural practices used by some producers, poor growing conditions and use of phytosanitary products unsuitable or sometimes inappropriate for the cultivation of chilli pepper [7] [44]. Once contaminated in the field, contamination continues after harvest, during transport, and during storage [45]. Finally, inappropriate storage or preservation processes used and the unsuitability of some varieties for preservation are also responsible for attacks by microorganisms especially molds [4] [34] [37].

The chilli pepper is confronted with many phytosanitary problems during its cycle. According to some producers, the aqueous extract of garlic is the solution they use as an insecticide to control certain vectors such as aphids and caterpillars responsible for plant diseases such as anthracnoses and others. The results of the survey reveal that it takes about 15 to 20 liters of aqueous solution of garlic extract to treat 400 m² of crop depending on the age of the plants. Also, the best way to control most of the diseases of chilli pepper plants is the elimination of infection vectors such as viruses, bacteria, aphids, white flies and especially molds from the nursery stage to the field before fruit maturity. Other producers, proceed to the rotation of culture which also allows to fight against certain diseases like nematodes. Crop associations are also adopted by the producers. It is about the realization of the culture of the chilli pepper with other cultures as the corn (Zea mays L.), the bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), the groundnut (Arachis hypogaea), the manioc (Manihot esculenta), certain vegetables of which Vernonia (Vernonia amygdalina), crin-crin (Corchorus olitorius), okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), African eggplant plants (Solanum macrocarpon) and other vegetable crops suitable for association with chilli pepper. In addition, the majority of producers use phytosanitary products to control the most common pests and diseases in the nursery and in the field (Figure 5).

Most of these products are not approved by the Beninese Government. According to the results of the surveys, 72% of these products are bought by producers in the markets: Azowlissè Market (District of Adjohoun), Malo Market (District of Dangbo), and Ikpinlè Market (District of Ikpinlè), but 28% of them are also bought by producers in the formal structures of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fishery, such as BENIN SEMENCE. Moreover, it would be a question for the producers, to use appropriate technical itineraries for the culture of chilli pepper, respecting the use of approved phytosanitary products, recommended by the competent structures of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fishery as regards market garden products in order to cultivate chilli peppers of good sanitary quality. Indeed, it is recommended, for example, the use of foliar herbicides of low persistence (glyphosate, sulphosate and gluphosinate of ammonium) against the stand of perennial plants before transplanting [46]. Also, weed control is also recommended to effectively control weeds that are alternative hosts for insects and pests responsible for some chilli pepper

diseases [4] [6] [46]. The real problem lies in the use of inappropriate or unsuitable phytosanitary products that constitute sources of post-consumption problems given that these chemicals are still found in trace amounts and sometimes even in high doses on the finished products thus presenting health risks for consumers. It is in this context that the main active ingredients used in the agricultural sector differ from one product to another and from the problems encountered by the producer in his field.

For example, this is the case of insecticides used to effectively control insects that attack chilli pepper in the field. According to the research work of Hakmaoui [44], these insecticides specifically consist of the following chemical compounds that vary depending on the insects involved:

­ Thrips: Spinosad, formetanate, abamectin ;

­ Mites: Dicofol, abamectin, bifentrin;

­ Fruit fly: Malathion, deltamethrin, trichlorfon ;

­ Aphids: Azadirechtin, pyrimicarb, acetamiprid, pyrethroid;

­ Root-knot nematodes: Carbofuran;

­ Caterpillars, leafminers, flea beetles, yellow bugs: azadirechtin, cypermethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin.

Other chemical compounds are also used to control some common diseases of chilli peppers in the field [11] [44]. These are copper-based chemical compound for the control of bacterial blight, copper-based compound, azoxystrobin and chlorothalonil for the control of anthracnose and finally thiram, cryptonol and previcur-based molecules for the control of crown rot agents.

The most difficult aspect of the chilli pepper chain is the post-harvest storage or preservation of chilli pepper fruit for use during the shortage or off-season. The improved storage methods most commonly used by respondents are as follows: 1) Immediately after harvest, wash the chilli pepper fruits and put them on the fire in a pot previously containing red oil. After cooking, put the chilli peppers in a sieve or basket. Then, dry them in an oven or in the sun on a clean bag for 72 hours and pour them into a can and close it hermetically. Indeed, the pepper can be preserved for 9 months thanks to this process of storage without any appearance of contaminants and especially molds. This method is adopted by 40% of the producers surveyed. 2) The rest, about 60%, adopt the method of conservation in boiling water. This method consists of washing and boiling the chilli peppers for 30 to 40 minutes before drying them in the sun or in an oven at 40˚C and 70˚C for better storage. Then, put them in a canister and close tightly and sometimes even in doubled jute bags for a good storage. These methods do not require the use of toxic chemicals for the most part and are without health risk for consumers. Indeed, the work done by Garba [47] and Ohin [48] showed that the bleaching carried out is a very important operation even capital in the conservation of most agricultural products such as peanut seeds (Arachis hypogeae) and hypocotyls of the roast tree (Borassus aethiopum Mart) against microorganisms that are the main agents of alteration of foods like chilli pepper. As for the drying carried out by heating the chilli pepper in the oven at 40˚C and 70˚C or under the sun at room temperature, it has as a capital effect the reduction of free water and partly bound water but also of some physico-chemical and nutritive components of the chilli pepper thus preventing the development of microorganisms of alteration like moulds. These results are in good agreement with those of Kennao [49] who showed that sun or oven drying of chilli pepper with gradual increase in temperature decreases the brightness, redness and yellowing of chilli pepper fruits by degradation of capsaicinoid contents (mainly capsorubin and capsanthin) responsible for the redness of chilli pepper [7] [50] and flavonoids such as glycosides and aglycones of myricetin, quercetin, luteolin, apigenin and kaempferol [51] responsible for the brightness of chilies. On the other hand, the decrease of these major compounds favors the decrease of the antimicrobial activity of chilli peppers against bacteria following the example of species of the genus Bacillus (mainly Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus cereus) and Sarcina lutea, whose development on chilli peppers was not an evidence because of these antibacterial compounds [7] [51]. It is clear that the drying rate decreased with decreasing moisture content. Also, hot air oven drying used during storage is better for good preservation of chilli pepper than sun drying whose variables are not always well controlled. These results are also consistent with those of other authors who indicate a loss of 75% of ascorbic acid during the drying of chilli pepper [7]. Also, the degradation of vitamin C content in fruit juices was also proved by El-Ishaq [52] due to the high temperature carried out in the process of their manufacture either by appertization or pasteurization for purposes of good storage.

On the other hand, 99% of the producers surveyed do not practice preservation which is another storage method involving the use of preservatives which are very toxic chemicals and harmful to the health of the consumer. Unfortunately, very few producers have received practical training on storage (12%) and preservation (8%). Awareness-raising should be reinforced by practical training on technical production, storage and conservation methods, without forgetting the health risks associated with the consumption of chilli peppers of poor sanitary quality. The adoption and implementation of advice from these training sessions would certainly enable producers to better support the development of the chilli pepper industry in Benin.