The Lambda Cold Dark Matter (ΛCDM) model is currently the best model to describe the development of the Universe from the Big Bang to the present time. It is composed of six parameters, two of them, Dark Energy (DE) and CDM, with unknown physical explanations. DE, leading to accelerated expansion of the Universe, is considered a scalar field characterized by exerting its force by repulsive gravity. We examined whether DE can be explained as the warping of spacetime in our Universe by external universes as components of a Multiverse or, in other words, as the gravitational pull exerted by other universes. The acceleration, the resultant kinetic energy, E kin, and the cosmological constant, Λ, were calculated for one to four external universes. The acceleration is approx. 10 -11 m/s 2, which is in agreement with observations. Its value is dependent upon the numbers and relative positions of external universes. DE density is approx. 10 -29 kg/m 3 and Λ is in the range of 10 -38 s -2 and 10 -55 m -2, respectively. Warping of spacetime by external universes as a physical explanation for DE seems feasible and warrants further considerations.
The standard model of cosmology, ΛCDM (Lambda Cold Dark Matter), is able to explain the status of our Universe starting from the Big Bang via formation of elements, stars and galaxies until present-day cosmological observations. ΛCDM is based on Einstein’s General Relativiy (GR) and the field equations derived from GR:
G μ ν + Λ g μ ν = k T μ ν
with Gμν = Einstein tensor, Λ = cosmological constant,gμν = metric tensor, k = Einstein gravitational constant, and Tμν = stress-energy tensor. According to the original version of GR, which did not contain Λ, the Universe is static, which means neither expanding nor crunching. Einstein revised this notion when it was discovered that the Universe is expanding by introducing Λ [
Six parameters are minimally necessary for the ΛCDM model, age of the Universe, scalar spectral index, curvature fluctuation amplitude, reionization optical depth, baryon matter density, Dark Energy (DE) density, and CDM density. Despite huge efforts, the latter two parameters still cannot be explained physically at present. Nevertheless, the ΛCDM model has been and still is the most efficient tool to cover cosmological observations. The characterization and check of feasibility of a physical explanation of DE is the objective of this paper.
DE has negative pressure and contributes to Tμν, the stress-energy tensor, leading to accelerated expansion of the Universe. DE is acting like repulsive gravity constituting approx. 68% of the mass-energy density of the Universe [
The focus of this paper is to check the feasibility for the following physical explanation of DE: warping of spacetime in our Universe due to a source or sources located outside of our Universe. The basis for this hypothesis is the existence of one or more other universes in addition to our Universe (Multiverse model). The concept of multiple universes or Multiverses has controversially been discussed by many physicists, dividing them into two groups, the believers such as for example Tegmark [
As a check of feasibility of the proposed hypothesis, the kinetic energy of our Universe due to the gravitational pull by one or more external universes has been calculated and from the resulting energy density, the two parameters, accelerated expansion and Λ, have been obtained using Einstein’s field equation. Both, acceleration and Λ, are in agreement with cosmological observations.
In order to simplify the calculations, it is assumed that all universes have a zero curvature, i.e. they are flat, follow the same laws of physics and are similar in size (radius r = 4.40 × 1026 m) and mass (m [baryonic + dark matter] = 1.01 × 1054 kg). A three-dimensional coordinate system, x, y, z, is used with its origin U0 (0, 0, 0) at the center of our Universe. Accordingly, any other universes have x-, y-, and z-coordinates, which are equal to or larger than twice the radius of the Universe, r. In the following, all coordinates are provided as multiples of r.
The net gravitational pull, F, of external universes is calculated according to Newton’s law, F = G m 1 m 2 / R i 2 with G = 6.674 × 10−11 m3/kg/s2, m1 = m2 = 1.45 ×1053 kg (baryonic mass) + 8.7 × 1053 kg (Cold Dark Matter [CDM] mass) = 1.01 × 1054 kg (total mass). The mass of CDM is obtained from its density of 2.24 × 10−27 kg/m3, as reported by Carmeli [
The overall gravitational pull of more than one external universe, F, is obtained by additive vector calculation after determination of the individual x-, y-, and z-components, Fi, for the individual pull of each external universe. Ri is obtained as R i = ( x i − a i ) 2 + ( y i − b i ) 2 + ( z i − c i ) 2 .
The total gravitational pull, Fi, of any external universe is obtained from the individual components Fx, Fy, and Fz with F x = F i cos α , F y = F i cos β , and F z = F i cos γ , with cos α = ( x i − a i ) / R i , cos β = ( y i − b i ) / R i , and cos γ = ( z i − c i ) / R i . The overall force, F, is then calculated individually summing up the Fx, Fy, and Fz components of all external universes according to F = ∑ F x 2 + ∑ F y 2 + ∑ F z 2 . The angle between the overall resulting vector, R, and the z-axis is θ and the angle between the projection of R on the xy-plane and the x-axis is Φ.
The acceleration of our Universe induced by gravity of external universes Ui, is calculated from a = F/m1. The net velocity of our Universe due to the net gravitational pull by external Universes is obtained as v ( t ) = v ( t 0 ) + a t with v (t0) = 0. For t, 13 billion years (4.10 × 1017 s) is used. The numbers obtained for a and v are net values due to the gravitational pull by external universes, not taking into consideration any effects by the Big Bang, which means v(t0) is set as zero. The distance the Universe has traveled after 13 billion years is calculated from d = vt. The relative distance is d/r.
The kinetic energy Ekin of our Universe due to the gravitational pull of the external universe(s) is calculated according to Ekin = 1/2m1v2 with v = the velocity of our Universe due to the gravitational pull after t = 13 billion years. Ekin is defined as DE. With Ekin = mc2, mass, m, is calculated and after division with the volume of our Universe V, the density of DE, ρλ, is obtained. Einstein’s field equations are then used for the calculation of Λ according to
G μ ν + Λ g μ ν = k T μ ν
With Gμν = Einstein tensor, Λ = cosmological constant, gμν = metric tensor, k = Einstein gravitational constant, and Tμν = stress-energy tensor leading to
G μ ν + Λ g μ ν = 8 π G T μ ν ,
and, finally to
Λ = 8 π G ρ λ ,
with ρλ = density of DE, for Λ with the dimension s−2
and to
Λ = 4 π G ρ λ / c 2 ,
with c = speed of light, for Λ with the dimension m−2.
The force, F, on our Universe by the gravitational pull of one external universe U (2, 0, 0) at a location twice the radius r from the center of our Universe, i.e. directly adjacent, is 8.88 × 1043 N (
The kinetic energy, Ekin, of our Universe due to the gravitational pull by one external universe is 6.53 × 1068 J from which an energy density, ρΛ, of 2.03 × 10−29 kg/m3 is calculated. The cosmological constant, Λ, is then obtained as 3.41 × 10−38 s−2 and 1.90 × 10−55 m−2, respectively.
If the external universe is located further away, e.g. at position U (10, 0, 0), we get F = 3.55 × 1042 N, a = 3.50 × 10−12 m/s2, and v = 1434 km/s, for U (100, 0, 0) we have F = 3.55 × 1040 N and v = 14.3 km/s and for U (1000, 0, 0) we obtain F = 3.55 × 1038 N, a = 3.50 × 10−16 m/s2, and v = 0.14 km/s. The dependence of F, a, ρΛ, and Λ on the location of an external universe at position U (n, 0, 0) with n = 2 - 10 is illustrated in
| Parameter | U (2) | U (3) | U (4) | U (5) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| F (N) | 8.88 × 1043 | 3.26 × 1043 | 2.30 × 1043 | 9.86 × 1043 |
| a (m/s2) | 8.75 × 10−11 | 3.21 × 10−11 | 2.27 × 10−11 | 9.72 × 10−11 |
| v (km/s) | 35,865 | 13,157 | 9292 | 39,846 |
| d (m) | 1.47 × 1025 | 5.39 × 1024 | 3.81 × 1024 | 1.63 × 1025 |
| d (r) | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.04 |
| Φ (˚) | 0 | 13.9 | −68.5 | −78.0 |
| θ (˚) | 90 | 90 | 41.4 | 82.1 |
| Ekin (J) | 6.53 × 1068 | 8.79 × 1067 | 4.38 × 1067 | 8.06 × 1068 |
| ρΛ (kg/m3) | 2.03 × 10−29 | 2.74 × 10−30 | 1.37 × 10−30 | 2.51 × 10−29 |
| Λ (s−2) | 3.41 × 10−38 | 4.59 × 10−39 | 2.29 × 10−39 | 4.21 × 10−38 |
| Λ (m−2) | 1.90 × 10−55 | 2.56 × 10−56 | 1.27 × 10−56 | 2.34 × 10−55 |
0, 0) ρλ= 2.62 × 10−36 kg/m3. The value for the cosmological constant, Λ, in these three cases is ΛU2 = 2.75 × 10−38 s−2 or 1.53 × 10−55 m−2, ΛU10 = 4.40 × 10−41 s−2 or 2.45 × 10−58 m−2, and ΛU100 = 4.40 × 10−45 s−2 or 2.45 × 10−62 m−2. Increasing the distance expectedly results in a decrease of force, acceleration, DE density and cosmological constant.
On the other hand, if the mass of the external universe is increased, this also increases F, a, ρΛ, and Λ, as illustrated in
In the model with two external universes at positions U1 (3, 0, 0) and U2 (−4, 4, 0), we obtain a gravitational pull of F = 3.26 × 1043 N, a net acceleration of a = 3.21 × 10−11 m/s2, and a net velocity of v = 13,157 km/s. The DE density is 2.74 × 10−30 kg/m3 and Λ = 4.59 × 10−39 s−2 or 2.56 × 10−56 m−2.
In the two three-dimensional graphs, the respective values are F = 2.30 × 1043 N and F = 9.86 × 1043 N, a = 2.27 × 10−11 m/s2 and a = 9.72 × 10−11 m/s2, and v = 9292 km/s and v = 39,846 km/s, respectively. Forρλ we obtain 1.37 × 10−30 kg/m3 and 2.51 × 10−29 kg/m3. The cosmological constants are calculated as 2.29 × 10−39 s−2 (1.27 × 10−56 m−2) and 4.21 × 10−38 s−2 (2.34 × 10−55 m−2).
Although the number of theories as modifications or alternatives to the ΛCDM model is constantly increasing, the introduction of the Cosmological Constant Λ by Einstein in 1917 [
being able to replace the ΛCDM model.
Other models that have widely been discussed are those based on extended gravity, for example, interferometric detection of gravitational waves as a definitive test of GR, as proposed by Corda [
The objective of the present paper is based on the idea that repulsive gravity, which is considered as the driving force of DE, might easily be substituted by “normal”, attractive gravity if the source of this force is placed outside of our Universe. This proposal requires the presence of a Multiverse, which means the existence of more than one universe. Using three-dimensional vector calculation and Newton’s Law on Gravity, the gravitational pull of external universes on our Universe was calculated for one, two, three, and four external universes. The total mass taken into account for a universe included baryonic matter and Dark Matter. For calculating the latter mass, DM density data published by Carmeli [
The acceleration achieved due to the gravitational pull by external universes is 2.3 to 9.7 × 10−11 m/s2 for all four models. This is in agreement with a ~1 km2/s2pc ≈ 3 × 10−11 m/s2 as reported by Walker [
From the acceleration we can calculate the kinetic energy, Ekin, induced by the gravitational pull and the density of Ekin, ρΛ. The kinetic energy of the Universe due to the acceleration induced by the external universes is proposed as the physical explanation of DE. Ekin is in the range of 4.4 × 1067 J to 8.1 × 1068 J and ρΛ is 1.4 × 10−30 kg/m3 to 2.5 × 10−29 kg/m3. The cosmological constant, Λ, was then obtained using Einstein’s field equations ranging from 2.3 × 10−39 s−2 or 1.3 × 10−56 m−2 to 4.2 × 10−38 s−2 or 2.3 × 10−55 m−2, which is somewhat smaller than the 10−35 s−2 and 10−52 m−2 reported by Carmeli [
The data provided in the present paper for Ekin and Λ have to be considered a first and rough check of the feasibility of this proposal and need further modeling. For example, the kinetic energies provided above do not take into consideration that the universes are approaching each other and therefore the distance r is decreasing, which results in an increase with time of Ekin and, likewise, of the cosmological constant, Λ. Other factors for modeling include the numbers, locations, and masses of the external universes.
The data obtained in this paper indicate that the accelerated expansion of our Universe can be explained by defining DE as the warping of spacetime by a source outside of our Universe. The kinetic energy caused by the gravitational pull by one or more external universes provides a direct measure for the warping of spacetime from outside. The concept is based on the assumption that we are living in a Multiverse and that the external universes are identical to ours in terms of physical laws and constants, at least regarding Newton’s Law on Gravity.
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.
Krause, W. (2021) Multiverse Model: External Universe(s) as Source of Dark Energy. Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology, 7, 1306-1314. https://doi.org/10.4236/jhepgc.2021.74080