A total of 2944 students in 25 schools in the 5 districts in Lomé-commune region were enrolled. The mean age was 11 old years with a range from 7 to 16 years. Characteristics of the surveyed population are shown in Table 1.

Overall, 5.0% (148/2944) children tested positive for at least one STH. The prevalence of STH varied significatively across the five districts, from 1.5% in District N˚1 to 8.6% in District N˚2 (p < 0.0001) (Figure 1).

Prevalence increased significantly with age; the highest prevalence was found in children over 15 years of age, 15.6% (p = 0.0001) (Table 2). Infection was significantly more prevalent in boys than girls (5.7% vs. 4.4%; p = 0.049). Hookworm was the predominant STH infection with a prevalence of 3.4%. A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura were each found in 0.8% of cases.

B = Boys; G = Girls; Total = B + G.

N = Number of pupils surveyed; D = district; n = number of positive cases; P < 0.0001 (age); P < 0.0001 (district).

Among pupils positive for STH, hookworm represented 68.2% (101/148) of infections. Other helminths identified were Schistosoma mansoni (n = 6; 0.20%), Hymenolepis nana (n = 3; 0.10%), Taenia sp (n = 2; 0.07%) and Dicrocoelium dendriticum (n = 1; 0.03%). Intensity of infection was mild in more than 83% of STH positive cases and in 89.1% hookworm cases. Among children with hookworm infection, the egg count median per gram of stool was 239 [95% CI 203 - 275] with extremes of 24 and 54,720. There were insufficient numbers of A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura infections to analyze intensity of infection.

Stool samples from 3^rd and 6^th grade students (1465 of the 2944 students) were examined for intestinal protozoa; 52.2% (N = 765) were positive. Commensal amoebae were the predominant intestinal protozoa identified (22.7%). There was no significant difference in the prevalence of intestinal protozoa by age (p = 0.1968), grade (p = 0.1194) (Table 3) or sex (p = 0.2984) (Table 3) of the children although prevalence decreased with age among children less than 15 years old.

Children in District N˚2 were significantly more likely to have intestinal protozoa than were the others (55.1% in district N˚2; p = 0.0412) (Figure 1).

Among the intestinal protozoa found, the most common pathogenic protozoa wereEntamoeba histolytica/dispar/moshkovskii,Giardia lamblia and Trichomonas intestinalis with an overall prevalence of 17.6% (Table 4).

N = number of children surveyed; n = number of positive cases; p = 0.1194 (grade); p = 0.2984 (sex).

n = number of positive cases.

A few cases of polyparasitism were noted, including helminth-helminth, protozoan-protozoan and helminth-protozoa association respectively in 1.35% (2/148), 12.2% (93/765) and 2.38% (35/1465) of cases.

Togo’s national program for the integrated control neglected tropical disease, launched in 2009, did not conduct MDA with albendazole for STH in Lomé-commune because the area was considered to be at low risk based on available data. However, to ensure that all children at risk benefit from preventive chemotherapy with albendazole, it was important to measure STH prevalence in this region, where 1/7 of Togo’s population lives. The low overall prevalence of STH of 5.0% found in this study confirms the results previously obtained by Vovor and al. in 2008 in this same region (7.3%) [13] but contrasts with the 32.1% found by Dorkenoo and al. [5] in 2009 during the nationwide evaluation which covered the five regions of Togo outside of Lomé-commune. Results from the present study and from Vovor et al. [13] corroborate the trend towards low STH prevalence in urban areas. Indeed, urban areas often have a relatively high level of sanitation maintained by local authorities and a high literacy rate, and residents may have a better understanding of, and compliance with, appropriate infection prevention measures. Poor environmental sanitation, limited access to latrines, unsafe water supply, low level of knowledge and practices of good individual hygiene, and low standard of living are often mentioned as major factors for the high prevalence of intestinal parasites among rural as compared to urban dwellers [14] [15]. Tchuem Tchuenté et al. in Cameroon in 2012 highlighted this, finding a significantly higher prevalence of STH in rural and peri-urban areas than in urban areas [16]. Our results also showed that the highest district-level prevalence of STH in Lomé commune (8.6%) was indeed found in the district covering the peri-urban area of the capital. In contrast, Phiri et al. in Malawi in 2016 reported a significantly higher overall prevalence in urban than in rural areas (16.5% vs. 3.6%; p < 0.001) [17]. In this Malawian urban community, risk factors included having pools of water/sewage around houses (OR = 3.0; CI = 1.4 - 6.5), not wearing shoes (OR = 7.1; CI = 2.7 - 19.2), not attending school (OR = 2.8; CI = 1.2 - 6.5), mothers having only 4 - 8 years of education (OR = 5.2; CI = 2.0 - 14.0), and mothers being below 35 years of age (OR = 4.09; CI = 1.39 - 16.28) [17]. In a Togolese study analyzing water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) conditions in 2015, only unimproved drinking water was found to be significantly associated with the presence or absence of hookworms in an individual; however, intensity of infection (number eggs per gram of feces) was associated with availability of unimproved drinking water, availability of improved drinking water either on or off school grounds, having a handwashing station with water available, and access to a sex separate non-private or private latrine [18]. The variable distribution of these infections is therefore not always related to the urban or rural character of the survey area but may rather be related to the state of its environmental sanitation [15]. In addition, other factors could explain the disparity in results, especially the age of the subjects surveyed, their underlying state of health, socio-economic status and the parasitological tool and method used to identify the helminths.

The low STH prevalence in our study could also be due to the systematic deworming done in routine practice in the paediatric services of the health centers of Lomé.

The STH prevalence varied according to sex: 5.7% in boys versus 4.4% in girls (p = 0.049). This male predominance has been reported in several studies [19] [20], while others have noted a female predominance [8].

STH prevalence in our study also increased significantly with age (p = 0.0001) and consequently with grade level. This result is likely due, in part, to the residual impact on the younger age groups of the albendazole deworming campaigns organized annually by the national nutrition program, with the support of UNICEF, for children under 5 years of age [21].

Hookworm was the most frequently identified helminth (68.2% of the 148 positive cases) with a prevalence of 3.4% in our study; the same observation was made elsewhere in Togo, Benin and Côte d’Ivoire, although the rates were much higher [5] [22] [23] [24]. In this study, very low prevalence of A. lumbricoides andT. trichiura was found (0.8% for each species), confirming the results of Dorkenoo et al. in Togo in 2009 and 2015 [5] [8]. However, these results contrast with those of N’diaye et al. [20] in Senegal where A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura were the predominant species with a prevalence of 60% and 25.6% respectively. Local ecology and the history of distribution of ivermectin in countries co-endemic for onchocerciasis may play a role in this disparity.

The low prevalence and intensity of infestation observed in our study support the decision not to extend mass treatment with albendazole to this region of Lomé-commune.

The nested survey of intestinal protozoa in 3^rd and 6^th grade children was included to provide information on the prevalence of these infections, which have not previously been examined in this region; 52.2% of pupils surveyed were positive for at least one protozoan in our study. Our prevalence is higher than the 34.7% prevalence found among children under 5 years of age in South Africa [25] and 25.2% in Rwanda [26]. This difference is likely due to the fact that in our study all identified parasites (pathogenic and commensal protozoa) were accounted for, while the other authors focused their evaluations only on pathogen species. However, the prevalence of protozoa in Togo is lower than that reported in some Maghreb countries: 96.5% in Sfax in Tunisia [27] and 88.3% in Kenitra in Morocco [28]. This difference could be related to the diagnostic techniques (parasite concentration and/or molecular or immunological tools) used in these other studies versus the direct examination technique used in our study.

There was no gender difference in prevalence of protozoal infection in our study, as was also found by Sacolo-Gwebu in South Africa and Elqai in Morocco [25] [28]; there was a non-significant trend toward decreased prevalence in older grades, from 54.2% for the 3^rd grade group to 50.1% for the 6^th grade group (p = 0.1194). This decrease in infection may be due to older children practicing better individual hygiene: washing their hands, wearing shoes, losing interest in dirty games.

Prevalence of intestinal protozoa varied by district; the highest rates were observed in peri-urban areas (districts 2 and 3) where access to latrines is poorer and where individual and collective hygiene practices are less frequently observed.

The pathogenic species Entamoeba histolytica/dispar/mishkovskii, Giardia intestinalis and Trichomonas intestinalis were found at relatively low rates, 2.3%, 11.5% and 3.8% respectively. Our results are similar to those of Chekhrouhou [27] who reported these species in 2.2%, 17% and 1.5% respectively, and those of Ghenghesh in Libya, for the period 2000-2015, who noted 6% of E. histolytica/dispar/moshkovskii, 2% of G. lamblia and 0.9% of Cryptosporidium spp. [29]. Much higher prevalence of E. histolytica/dispar/moshkovskii has been described worldwide [29] [30]; the most commonly identified commensal species were E. nana and Entamoeba coli, with prevalence of 65.5% and 62.3%, respectively [30], similar to our study where E. coli was the most prevalent commensal amoebae (16.5%). In South Africa, Samie et al. were able to differentiate between the three species of the E. histolytica complex in 170 samples using the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technique and noted 15.9% E. moshkovskii, 14.7% E. dispar and 4.1% E. histolytica [31]. This finding suggests that the proportion of pathogenic species in our study might have been much lower had we used PCR to differentiate the non-pathogenic and pathogenic species of E. histolytica complex.

The prevalence of pathogenic intestinal protozoa in our study does not constitute a public health problem in the Lomé commune health region, similar to our findings for STH.