TITLE:
Why Battery Swapping Is Not a Viable Model for Electric Tricycles in Nigeria: A Technical and Economic Perspective
AUTHORS:
Oluwafemi Adeola Alade, Abel Eseoghene Owotemu
KEYWORDS:
Battery Swapping, Keke NAPEP, Electric Tricycle, Nigeria, DC Fast Charging, LFP Battery, Connector Degradation, Battery-as-a-Service, TCO, CAPEX, OPEX, NPV, Paratransit Electrification, Sub-Saharan Africa
JOURNAL NAME:
Journal of Service Science and Management,
Vol.19 No.4,
August
25,
2026
ABSTRACT: Battery swapping has attracted growing investment and scholarly attention as an energy replenishment model for electric two- and three-wheelers across Africa. Companies such as Spiro and Ampersand have demonstrated viable battery-as-a-service models for electric motorcycles in Rwanda and Kenya, and development finance institutions have committed hundreds of millions of dollars to scaling these networks. In Nigeria, commercial pilots by Bolt and Swap have introduced battery swapping for electric tricycles in Lagos. This paper argues that battery swapping is not a viable primary energy replenishment model for converted Keke NAPEP electric tricycles in Nigeria at the current stage of the country’s electrification trajectory. The argument is not that battery swapping is inherently flawed as a technology, but that its application to the specific vehicle class, operator structure, and infrastructure environment of the Nigerian Keke NAPEP conversion market exposes a combination of technical, economic, mechanical, and operational constraints that collectively prevent it from functioning safely, reliably, and economically at scale. The paper evaluates battery swapping against seven constraints and presents the results in a formal scoring matrix (Table 3). It then presents DC fast charging as the technically and economically superior alternative, substantiated by experimental charging data (Table 1) showing a mean charge time of 120 minutes (±8 min) from 5% to 100% SOC using a 3 - 5 kW DC charger at 33˚C - 38˚C ambient with an experimental fast DC configuration achieving a mean of 45 minutes (±6 min) conducted across 12 and 8 charge cycles respectively on the companion study’s validated 96 V, 80 Ah LFP battery. A quantitative cost comparison (Table 2) establishes that the DC fast charging model delivers a 5 to 12 month payback period and a 5-year NPV of ₦2.6 - ₦4.5 million per converted vehicle, compared to 8 - 16 months and ₦1.8 - ₦3.2 million under the battery swapping model.