TITLE:
Galaxy Formation Study
AUTHORS:
Gene H. Barbee
KEYWORDS:
Astrophysics, Cosmology, Flat Rotation Curves, Luminosity Distribution, Galaxies
JOURNAL NAME:
Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology,
Vol.12 No.3,
July
17,
2026
ABSTRACT: A mass model of a proton and a new expansion model provide values of interest to unification and gravitational theory. This goal of this study is to determine if these two models provide insight into cosmology issues. To accomplish this goal, a detailed galaxy and star formation simulation was developed. The proton model has a particle with dark matter properties that accumulates soon after equality into 1e11 black holes that average 1e40 kg each. The galaxy simulation is based on normal matter gas falling into orbits around the black hole over the period Z = 500 to Z = 18 resulting a galaxy of mass 2e40 kg. Unstable gas clouds are divided by a Jeans radius into volumes that accumulate into stars. The stars that form average 2e30 kg each. This sets the average number of stars/galaxy at 1e10 that is equal to 2e40 kg/2e30 kg. Flat galaxy rotation curves have been observed for centuries. They are unexpected observations because they conflict with Newtonian gravity. If the measurements are correct, mass is proportional to radius and there must be hidden matter halos inside galaxies. The galaxy formation simulation is able to simulate the anomaly. It turns out that time has shifted differently for the orbits because they formed over an extended period. Redshift measurements obscure Newtonian fundamentals and no hidden matter is required. Luminosity measurements across galaxies indicate that most stars are near the center of a galaxy. Astrophysics uses an empirical power law to describe this behavior. Galaxy simulation implies a similar mass distribution.