TITLE:
Structure Formation Study
AUTHORS:
Gene H. Barbee
KEYWORDS:
Dark Matter, Expansion, Mass Accumulation, Cosmic Web
JOURNAL NAME:
Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology,
Vol.12 No.3,
July
6,
2026
ABSTRACT: Observations from the James Webb Telescope and Vera C. Ruben Observatory are challenging current models. Fully formed galaxies, red spots, and black holes as early as expansion ratio Z = 20 are issues. An alternative expansion model called the straight-line expansion model is described. It produces radius and time results similar to the conventional Lambda Cold Dark Matter (LCDM) model. Structure formation was studied and reported for the new expansion model. Progress toward a unified theory was recently published that contains a proton mass model. The proton model contains values of potential interest to cosmologists. 1) Expansion energy of 10.15 MeV/proton the mass of a “dark matter” particle that only interacts gravitationally and 2) the basis of a probabilistic argument that there are exp(180) protons in nature. The expansion kinetic energy produces an expansion temperature history that can be compared with current sky temperature 2.73 k. The “dark matter” particle cannot produce pressure that normally resists accumulation that can produce black holes. This study was carried out to determine if these three proton model values have merit in cosmology. A timeline of events was presented. Specifically, transitions called equality, decoupling and the onset of mass accumulation. This study indicates that after equality matter was influenced by Zel’dovich perturbations. A Jeans radius establishes the size of structures that form. Two features were identified that suggest a relationship between the cosmic web and Cosmic Microwave Background measurements.