TITLE:
The Impact of COVID-19 on the Distribution and Availability of Routine Immunization Vaccines at Last-Mile Facilities in Sokoto State, Nigeria
AUTHORS:
Loveth Metiboba, Olufunke Femi-Ojo, Sadiq Haruna Hassan, Shehu Ahmad Tambuwal, Mohammed-Faosy Adeniran, Ahmadu Bello, Glory Nwakaogor
KEYWORDS:
Routine Immunization, Vaccine Distribution Operations, COVID-19, Pandemic Preparedness
JOURNAL NAME:
Open Journal of Social Sciences,
Vol.14 No.4,
April
29,
2026
ABSTRACT: Background: Globally, COVID-19 occurred without a preparedness plan, halting all public health interventions and restricting vaccines and other commodities from reaching health facilities. The dearth of evidence on the impact of the pandemic on routine immunization services necessitates this study. Objective: This study explored the impact of COVID-19 on the distribution and availability of RI vaccines at last-mile facilities in Sokoto State, Nigeria. Methods: The RI vaccine stock-out data were obtained from the project’s stock performance database. An in-depth interview guide was used to elicit information on the impact of COVID-19 on VDD operations from 37 RI stakeholders purposively selected across the state to match the study’s scope. We used paired t-tests to determine the significance of the mean difference between the stock-out events months before and post COVID-19. The qualitative data were coded inductively and analyzed thematically. Results: The majority (95%) of the respondents are males with an average work experience of 5 years. The main alterations to the VDD operations due to COVID-19 are the change of delivery schedule from biweekly to monthly and an increased delivery time by 29%. The mean difference of stock-out data 8 months before and post-COVID-19 is not statistically significant. The adaptations to the VDD operations include earlier delivery take-off time and acts of resilience and project ownership. Conclusion: The introduction of the Vaccine Direct Delivery (VDD) project in 2016 led to improved availability of Routine Immunization (RI) vaccines at last-mile facilities in northern Nigeria. Subsequently, RI vaccine stock-outs had reduced significantly where VDD had been introduced. COVID-19 evidently caused some changes to the VDD operations without undermining the impact of the project. This study further strengthens the importance of preparing flexible operational plans for projects to thrive during unprepared outcomes.