TITLE:
Is Neurofeedback Really Operant Conditioning? What Conductance and Heart Rate Variability Tell Us. A Real-World Evidence
AUTHORS:
Frederic Pérez-Alvarez, Sílvia Mayoral-Rodrígez, Carme Timoneda-Gallart, Oscar Mateu Robusté, Jordi Baus-Rosset, Lluis Larrea-Barreiro
KEYWORDS:
Neurofeedback, Brain Wave, Operant Conditioning, Skin Conductance, Heart Rate Variability, Emotional Behavior
JOURNAL NAME:
Journal of Behavioral and Brain Science,
Vol.16 No.2,
February
12,
2026
ABSTRACT: It is assumed that the learning mechanism used by Neurofeedback is operant conditioning. The hypothesis is not based on neurons that learn to associate brain waves with well-being or discomfort; rather, they learn to associate well-being or discomfort with those brain waves. The mean age of the sample (n = 210) was 14.13 (SD = 1.46; range 12 - 18), with 31.5% women. Each subject received 30 Neurofeedback sessions. Skin conductance response, also known as galvanic skin response or electrodermal activity as well as heart rate variability, were registered during sessions. They are recognized as markers of emotional feeling. This study shows statistically significant differences in microSiemens (conductance) between the baseline value and sessions 15 (p = 0.01) and 30 (p = 0.01). In addition, increased heart rate variability was verified with statistically significant differences in Root Mean Square of the Successive Differences between the baseline value and sessions 15 (p = 0.01) and 30 (p = 0.01). This study associated Neurofeedback with the achievement of well-being. Neuroscientific reasons are argued to explain this achievement. It is concluded that neurofeedback modifies the emotional state and, as a consequence, changes the pattern of brain waves. Brain waves are a consequence but not a cause.