Influence of Degree of Cold-Drawing on the Mechanical Properties of Low Carbon Steel

doi:10.4236/msa.2011.211208

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Materials Science s a nd Applications, 2011, 2, 1556-1563

doi:10.4236/msa.2011.211208 Published Online November 2011 (http://www.SciRP.org/journal/msa)

Influence of Degree of Cold-Drawing on the

Mechanical Properties of Low Carbon Steel

Nurudeen A. Raji, Oluleke O. Oluwole

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.

Email: [email protected], [email protected]

Received July 27th, 2011; revised September 13th, 2011; accepted September 22nd, 2011.

ABSTRACT

Low carbon steel metal is used for the manufacture of nails. Steel wire with <0.3% C content is cold-drawn through a

series of drawing dies to reduce the diameter of the wire to the required diameter of the nails. A 0.12%w C steel wire

cold drawn progressively by 20%, 25%, 40% and 50% was investigated. The influence of the degree of cold drawing on

the mechanical properties of the carbon steel material were studied using the tensile test, impact test and hardness test

experiments in order to replicate the service condition of the nails. The tensile test was done on a Montanso® tensome-

ter to investigate the yield strength and the tensile strength of the material as the degree of deformation increases. An

Izod test was used to determine the impact toughness of the steel using the Hounsfield impact machine and the hardness

numbers were obtained for the different degrees of drawn deformation of the steel on the Brinnel tester. The study used

the stress-strain relationship of the tensile test experiment to study the effect of the degree of cold-drawing deformation

on the yield strength and tensile strength properties of the low carbon steel. The yield strength of the material was ob-

served to reduce with increasing degree of cold-drawing, an indication of reduction in the ductility and the tensile

strength of the material reduced with increasing degree of cold-drawn deformation. The ability of the material to resist

impact loads when nails are hammered reduced with increasing degree of drawn deformation as a result of strain

hardening of the material after the drawing operation. However the resilience of the material to further cold drawn

deformation increased with increasing degree of deformation as evident in the Brinnel hardness number which in-

creases with the degree of drawing deformation. This is an indication of the material’s approach to brittleness as the

degree of drawn deformation increases.

Keywords: Cold-Drawn, Deformation, Stress-Strain, Toughness, Yield Strength, Tensile Strength

1. Introduction

The mechanical properties of a material are those related

to its ability to withstand external mechanical forces.

Metals can undergo substantial permanent deformation.

This characteristic property of materials makes it feasible

to shaping. However, it imposes some limitations on the

engineering usefulness of such materials. Permanent de-

formation is due to process of shear where particles

change their neighbors. Nail manufacture from low car-

bon steels involve cold drawing deformation resulting in

plastic flow of the material. In drawing deformation, the

metal is strain hardened that is strength and hardness

increases with the degree of cold work whilst ductility

and impact values are lowered and unstable defect struc-

tures are retained after deformation [1]. This drawing

process is considered to be one of the most effective and

flexible methods to improve surface finish, to obtain pre-

cise dimension and to obtain the specified mechanical

properties of a product [2]. The structural changes which

occur during the cold deformation of metals include the

gradual stretching of the grains in the direction of prin-

cipal deformation and directional arrangement of the

crystallographic lattice [3,4]. The effect of such cold

work on the properties of polycrystalline structures have

been studied extensively [5-18]. The cold work process

of wire drawing consists of reducing the cross-section of

a wire by pulling the wire through series of conical dies

[19]. Metal wire drawing technology has been widely

used to manufacture fine wires [20,21]. When the defor-

mation amount is very significant, the wire generates

microstructure heterogeneities that may exhibit large

orientation gradients and stored energies [22]. Also the

microstructure presents a morphological texture where

the grains are lengthened along the wire drawing axis

[3,11,12]. Microstructure changes occurring during wire

Influence of Degree of Cold-Drawing on the Mechanical Properties of Low Carbon Steel1557

drawing can result in a record strength comparable with

that of quenched steel. Reference [23,24] investigated the

mechanical properties variation in drawn wires of

high-alloy steel and special alloys. The optimum ranges

of deformation were determined; the influence of the

distribution of partial reduction of area in the multi-

stager drawing and distressing on the distribution of lon-

gitudinal stresses was investigated. The non-uniformity

of properties on the cross-section of drawn wire was

found to depend individually on the grade of the drawn

material. The influence of back tension during wire

drawing process was also considered in [25]. An attempt

was made at finding the relationship between the critical

back tension value and the mechanical properties of a

material including optimization of the fine wire multi-

stage slip drawing process and variations of the back

tension value in successive deformation stages as well as

the measurements of the drawing force, metal pressure

on the die and back tension.

The strain hardening, also known as work hardening,

which results from the wire drawing process, is an in-

crement in internal energy associated with an increase in

the dislocation density as well as the density of point

defects, such as vacancies and interstitials [26,27]. This

strengthening occurs because of dislocation movements

within the crystal structure of the material. Strengthening

occurring at large strain plastic deformations has been

discussed both experimentally [28] and theoretical [29]

in search of the relevant microscopic strengthening proc-

esses. In order to improve the understanding of the hard-

ening mechanism and the microstructure–behavior rela-

tionships, [30] presented results of the evolution of

stress-strain curves with the austenitic grain size through

reverse straining test. Strain hardening is the phenome-

non whereby a ductile metal becomes harder and str-

onger as it is plastically deformed [31]. This phenome-

non is explained on the basis of dislocation-dislocation

strain field interactions. When metals are plastically de-

formed, some fraction of the deformation is retained in-

ternally and the remainder is dissipated as heat. The ma-

jor portion of this stored energy is as strain energy asso-

ciated with dislocations.

Influence of cold work and aging on the mechanical

properties of Cu-bearing HSLA steel was studied by [32].

It was concluded that cold working and subsequent aging

enhances the hardness and tensile strength (Su) of the

material but significantly deteriorate the ductility and

impact energy. The poor impact energy is a consequence

of inhomogeneous deformation at coherent particle sites

and high stress concentrations at dislocation-precipitate

junction and dislocation cell walls. Reference [12] inves-

tigated the impact of cold reduction size and annealing

on the mechanical properties of HSLA steel. It was con-

firmed that by a suitable combination of size of previous

cold deformation and parameters of annealing properties,

it is possible to influence considerably a complex of me-

chanical properties of particular strips of the steel.

Mechanical properties distributions on the cross sec-

tions of drawn products were investigated by [33]. Spe-

cific effective strain non-uniformities were found to in-

fluence the distribution of mechanical properties in the

final product of the drawn bars. It was noticed that the

non-uniformity of mechanical properties in bars before

deformation and different character of strain hardening of

the bars after deformation were contributing factors to

the influenced mechanical properties of the resulting

product. It is also evident that the rate of deformation as

defined by the die angle contributes to the state of the

non-uniformity of the bar. Reference [34] investigated

the influence of die angle on the drawing parameters es-

pecially drawing stress during the drawing of square

twisted wire used for twisted nails. Conditions were for-

mulated for the stable deformation of the wires. An im-

portant characteristic of the drawing process is the die

semi-angle which influences the drawing forces, the lu-

brication in the process and also the mechanical proper-

ties of the final product [26]. Plastic deformation is con-

trolled by the interaction of dislocations with the host

lattice, the applied stress, and with other defects such as

other dislocations, solutes, grain boundaries and precipi-

tates [33].

The stress-strain curve is the usual tool for the meas-

urement of mechanical properties of materials. Material

properties such as the modulus of elasticity, the yield

strength, the tensile strength, modulus of resilience and

modulus of toughness are usually estimated from the

curve. The stress-strain curve is characterized by three

regions; the elastic region, the yield region and the plas-

tic flow region. Elasticity is the property of complete and

immediate recovery from an imposed displacement on

release of the load, and the elastic limit is the value of

stress at which the material experiences a permanent re-

sidual strain that is not lost on unloading. The yield stress,

denoted σY is the stress needed to induce plastic deforma-

tion in the material. During yield and the plastic-flow

regime following yield, the material flows with negligi-

ble change in volume; increases in length are offset by

decreases in cross-sectional area. Ductile metals often

have true stress-strain relations that can be described by a

simple power-law relation of the form:







where t



is the true stress, t is the true strain and the

parameter n is called the strain hardening parameter,

useful as a measure of the resistance to necking, n is the

strain hardening exponent and A is the strength coeffi-



Influence of Degree of Cold-Drawing on the Mechanical Properties of Low Carbon Steel

1558

cient.

Recent assessment of locally produced nails concluded

that nails manufactured in Nigeria were produced to

specification [35]. The assessment was based on two

experimentations; the load-extension test and lateral

bending test due to lateral loading. It became important

to consider possible lateral deflection (buckling) of the

nail due to impact loading which usually result from the

hammering action of driving the nail into the work-piece.

Field observation has shown that some of the nails pro-

duced locally buckles due to high ductility under such

impact load or sometimes simply fracture due to brittle-

ness of the nail. This paper presents a study of the influ-

ence of degree of drawing deformation on the strength

and toughness of low carbon steel used for the manufac-

ture of plain nails. The intent is to examine the degree of

toughness of the nails to impact load due to hammering

of the nail in service. It is evident that the more the

toughness of a material, the more the impact loading the

material can sustain. Stress-strain curves are important

graphical measure of a material’s mechanical properties

and are extensively used for the properties characteriza-

tion of the low carbon steel in this study.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

The materials were commercial available low carbon

steels with different degrees of cold drawing at 20%,

25%, 40%, and 55% as applicable for the manufacture of

4inches, 3 inches, 2(1/2) inches and 2 inches nails re-

spectively. The chemical composition of the cold-drawn

low carbon steel is presented in Table 1. Three basic

mechanical properties tests were carried out to determine

the properties of the drawn steel in service. These include;

the tensile test, impact toughness test, and the Brinnel

hardness test. For the purpose of these experiments, three

samples for each degree of the drawn steel were prepared

for each of the experiment making a total of forty-five

samples. The samples studied were prepared to size as

follows:

1) Tensile test-samples



= 5.4 mm, l = 32.7 mm for

control specimen;



= 5.0 mm, l = 33.7 mm for 20%

cold-drawn;



= 4.0 mm, l = 33.6 mm for 25% cold-

drawn;



= 3.3 mm, l = 33.5 mm for 40% cold-drawn;

and



= 3.0 mm, l = 35.5 mm for 55% cold drawn.

2) Impact toughness test samples; 45˚ angle V-notch

Table 1. Chemical composition of the as-received steel w ire

material (wt%).

C Si Mn P Fe

0.12 0.18 0.14 0.7 98.86

of 2 mm depth is impressed in each of the sample of



5.4 mm, l = 50 mm, for 0% cold-drawn;



= 5.0 mm, l =

50 mm for 20% cold-drawn;



= 4.0 mm, l = 50 mm for

25% cold-drawn;



= 3.3 mm, l = 50 mm for 40%

cold-drawn;



= 3.0 mm, l = 50 mm for 55% cold drawn.

3) Hardness test samples



= 5.4 mm, l = 30 mm for

0% cold-drawn;



= 5.0 mm, l = 30 mm for 20%

cold-drawn;



= 4.0 mm, 30 mm for 25% cold-drawn;



= 3.3 mm, 30 mm for 40% cold-drawn;



= 3.0 mm, 30

mm for 55% cold drawn,

2.2. Methodology

The investigation of the mechanical properties consisted

of the following stages;

2.2.1. Tensile Test

The tensile test was done on a Montanso® tensometer

available at the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife.

Table 2 shows the tensile values of the material used at

different degree of deformation. The test specimens were

mounted on the tensometer one after the other and sub-

jected to tension. The tensile force is recorded as a funcz

under displacement control, so as to allow a complete

recording of the load-displacement plot up to final failure.

The engineering measure of the stress and strain was

determined from the measure of the load and deflection

using the original cross-section area o

and length o

[36] as;









(1)

where e



is the engineering stress, e is the engineer-

ing strain, P is the load applied, is the metal elonga-

tion due to applied load, o



is the original length of the

metal under the tensile force. A more direct measure of

the material’s response is obtained from the true stress-

strain curve up to the UTS limit for the different degree

of drawn deformation. A measure of the strain often used

in conjunction with the true stress is expressed as follows

[36],

Table 2. Tensile test value s.

% Original Original

deformation length of

wire, lo(mm)

dia. of wire,

Do(mm)

Final length

of wire, lf(mm)

Final dia. of

wire, Df(mm)

Control

specimen 32.7 5.4 40.2 2.4

20 33.7 5 37.4 4.8

25 33.6 4 35.5 3.8

40 33.5 3.3 36.6 1.6

55 35.5 3 37 1.7

Influence of Degree of Cold-Drawing on the Mechanical Properties of Low Carbon Steel1559





(2)

The true stress-strain relationship was thus obtained

from the engineering stress-strain up to the strain at

which necking begins as;

 

1,ln1

te ete



 

 



(3)

The true stress-extension ratio plot was used to deter-

mine the extension ratio at yield Y, and the yield stress



Y of the drawn steel at the different degrees of cold-

drawn deformation as shown in Figure 2.

2.2.2. Impact Test

A v-notch is cut on each specimen using a a Hounsfield

notching machine ensuring that the notch screw is set at a

depth of 2mm so that the cutter just touches the test piece.

Each test piece is broken with a pendulum on the Houns-

field balanced impact machine and the energy absorbed

in fracturing is measured. The test is performed on three

different samples for each of the degree of cold-drawn

deformation and the average of the measurement was

taken.

2.2.3. Brinnel Hardness Test

Each specimen for the hardness test is filed to create flat

surface on the nail shank. The flat surface is then pol-

ished with emery paper to obtain a very smooth surface

required of the test. The specimens are then supported on

a Brinnel tester and a hardened spherical ball of 10 mm

diameter is forced at a load of 750 kg into the surface of

each specimen for 10 seconds. The diameter of the in-

denter impression is measured and the measurement is

converted into the Brinell-hardness number on the Brin-

nel tester conversion table.

2.2.4. Pure Reversal Bending Fatigue Limit

Computations

This stress simulates the stress that can be endured by the

steel during continuous bending hammering to straighten

the nail after it has bent. The fatigue limits were com-

puted from the relationship applicable when

(1380 N/mm2) [37,38] as is the case in the

tests conducted. Where is the fatigue limit

0.5

eb u

S

200

Sks

3. Results and Discussion

After the analysis of the mechanical properties of the

cold-drawn steel it may be reported that the mechanical

properties of the cold-drawn steel is substantially influ-

enced by the degree of cold deformation as applicable for

nail manufacture.

3.1. Tensile Test

Figures 1(a)-1(e) show the flow curves for the different

degrees of drawing deformation. They show the engi-

neering stress-strain and the true stress strain curves for

the material at different degrees of cold drawn deforma-

tion. It was observed from the figures that the stress

needed to increase the strain beyond the proportionality

limit in the material continued to rise beyond the propor-

tionality limit indicating an increasing stress requirement

to continue straining. The increasing stress requirement

measures the strain hardening level of the metal as the

degree of drawn deformation increases.

Yield strength is the amount of stress at which plastic

deformation becomes noticeable and significant in the

material. In the Figures 1(a)-1(e) there is no definite

point on the curve where elastic strain ends and plastic

strain begins; the yield strength is chosen to be that

strength when a definite amount of plastic strain has oc-

curred. Figures 2(a)-2(e) show constructions for the true

stress-extension ratio plots used in determining the ex-

tension ratio at yield. The different yield strengths ob-

tained for the low carbon steel at different degrees of

cold-drawn deformation is as tabulated in Table 3. The

yield strength of the material reduces with increasing

degree of cold-drawing, an indication of reduction in the

ductility of the material making the material approach the

brittle stage due to strain hardening effect of the drawing

operation. The tensile strength which gives indication of

the materials, such as its hardness is a good measure of

the material brittle nature as the degree of drawn defor-

mation increases. The Table 3 also shows that the tensile

strength of the material reduced as cold-drawing in-

creased, indicating an approach of the material to brittle

nature.

3.2. Impact Toughness

The energy absorption of the material at different degree

of deformation as measured from the impact toughness

test is as shown in Table 3. The impact toughness is the

energy needed to completely fracture the material and it

reduces with increasing degree of cold-drawn deforma-

tion. Materials showing good impact resistance are gen-

erally those with high moduli of toughness. This implied

that as the degree of drawn deformation increases, the

ability of the material to resist impact loading reduces.

This could be said to account for the buckling or sudden

fracture of some of the nails when hammered in service.

3.3. Material Hardness and Fatigue Strength

Table 3 also shows that the hardness index number of

the material increases as the degree of deformation in-

creases. This implies that the hardness of the cold-drawn

low carbon steel increases with increasing degree of

cold-drawn deformation. This is in agreement with the

strain hardening resulting frm the drawing process of o

Influence of Degree of Cold-Drawing on the Mechanical Properties of Low Carbon Steel

1560

100

0.00 0.50 1.00

EngineeringStress(kg/sq.

(mm))

True Stress (kg/sq(mm))

Stress (N/sq. Mm)

Strain

(a)

0.000.100.20 0.30

EngineeringStress(kg/sq.

(mm))

True Stress (kg/sq(mm))

Stress (N/sq. Mm)

Strain

‐10

0.000.10 0.200.30

Engineering

Stress (kg/sq.

(mm))

Strain

Stress (N/sq. Mm)

(b) (c)

0.000.10 0.200.30 0.40

EngineeringStress

(kg/sq. (mm))

True Stress

(kg/sq(mm))

Strain

Stress (N/sq. Mm)

0.00 0.05 0.10 0.150.20

EngineeringStress(kg/sq.

(mm))

True Stress (kg/sq(mm))

Stress (N/sq. Mm)

Strain

(d) (e)

Figure 1. Stress-strain curves. (a) Control specimen; (b) 20% deformation; (c) 25% deformation; (d) 40% deformation; (e)

55% deformation.

4. Conclusions

the steel which reduces the diameter of the steel wire to

the required diameter of the nails. The buckling and brittle natures of some nails in service

are established to be due to the overall effect of the nail

manufacturing process of drawing. The toughness of the

low carbon steel used for the nail manufacture reduces as

the degree of drawing deformation increases. The ductil-

ity of the material also reduces with increasing degree of

rawing deformation. Improving the toughness of the

The ability of the nails to withstand continuous ham-

mering reversal bending stresses (fatigue) when trying to

straighten bent nails is reduced as well with increasing

cold–drawing using the commonly used relationship,

between fatigue strength (Seb) and ultimate tensile

strength (Su), Seb= 0.5 Su. d

Influence of Degree of Cold-Drawing on the Mechanical Properties of Low Carbon Steel1561

‐10

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.52.0 2.5

TRUE STRESS

Extension r a tio, 

True stress, 



=1.65

o

=80N/sq. Mm

(a)

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

TRUE STRESS



=1.22

Extension ratio, 

True stre ss, 

O

=70N/sq. Mm

‐10

0.00.5 1.0 1.5

TRUE STRESS

O

=60N/sq. Mm

Extension ratio, 

True stre ss, 



=1 .20

(b) (c)

‐5

0.0 0.5 1.01.5

TRUE STRESS

Extension ratio, 

True stress, 

OY=1. 2 5



Y=44.5N/sq. Mm

‐5

0.951.00 1.051.10 1.15 1.20

TRUE STRESS

Extension ratio, 

True stress, 



=1.1 0

O

=40N/sq. Mm

(d) (e)

Fig ure 2. Eff ect of draw i ng defor m ati on on yi eld st re ngt h of l ow carbon steel. (a) Control specimen; (b) 20% deformation; (c)

25% deformation; (d) 40% deformation; (e) 55% deformation.

Table 3. Yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, brinnel hardness, pure reversal bending fatigue strength and energy ab-

sorption of the nails at different degrees of drawn deformation.

% Deformation Yield Strength, sy

(N/sq·mm)

Tensile Strength (UTS),

(N/mm2)

Relative Impact

Toughness

Brinnel Hardness,

Pure Reversal bending

Fatigue Limit, (N/mm2)

Control Specimen 80 670.88 31.8 209.67 335.44

20 70 578.79 15.4 230.00 289.40

25 60 510.12 7.07 281.67 255.06

40 44.5 392.40 3.97 315.67 196.20

55 40 382.59 3.57 336.00 191.30

Influence of Degree of Cold-Drawing on the Mechanical Properties of Low Carbon Steel

1562

low carbon steel without sacrificing the ductility of the

material is a primary concern towards improving the

quality of nail locally manufactured. The stress needed to

increase the strain beyond the proportionality limit in the

material continues to rise beyond the proportionality

limit indicating an increasing stress requirement to con-

tinue straining as also evident in the increasing hardness

of the material as the degree of drawn deformation in-

creases. The degree of drawn deformation affects the

yield strength of the material as evident in the flow curve

analysis. The difference in yield strength was attributed

to the strain hardening, resulting from the different de-

grees of drawn deformation.

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