Impact of Iron Ore Tailing on Foraminifera of the Uppateru River Estuary, East Coast of India

doi:10.4236/jep.2011.23025

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Journal of Environmental Protection, 2011, 2, 213-220

doi:10.4236/jep.2011.23025 Published Online May 2011 (http://www.scirp.org/journal/jep)

213

Impact of Iron Ore Tailing on Foraminifera of the

Uppateru River Estuary, East Coast of India

Nadimikeri Jayaraju1, Balam Chinnapolla Sundara Raja Reddy2, Kambham Reddeppa Reddy2,

Addula Nallapa Reddy3

1Department of Geoinformatics, Yogi Vemana University, Andhra Pradesh, India; 2Department of Geology, Sri Venkateswara

University, Andhra Pradesh, India; 3ONGC Regional Labs, Rajahmundry, India.

Email: [email protected]

Received June 8th, 2010; revised February 1st, 2011; accepted March 2nd, 2011.

ABSTRACT

Benthic foraminiferal assemblages have been used to determine the effects of Iran ore tailing pollution on the marine

environment. The presen t paper attempts to unveil pollution impact as responded b y foraminiferal species of Uppateru

estuary. The faunal data thus generated is compared with earlier data sets for possible adverse effects. There has been

substantial reduction in total foraminiferal number (TFN), from 574 in 2006 to 213 in 2008 species (St.No.3) per10

gram sediment. Even the total species number (TSN) decreased from 27 in (St.No.8) 2006 to 8 (St.No.1) in 2008. Am-

monia accounted for its share (68%), followed by Elphidium (7.4%) and Quinqueloculina (6.5%). These genera are

considered to be robu st and o ppo rtunistic typ e in the study a rea. Th is fauna l variation in terms o f density (TFN) may be

owing to the pollution caused by iron ore tailing. This study also supports the view that benthic foraminiferal biota can

be used as a tool to monitor marine pollution in general and estuarine environment in specific.

Keywords: Iron Ore Tailing, Foraminifera, Pollution, Mining, Uppateru, East Coast of I ndia

1. Introduction

1.1. General Perspective on Pollution

Anthropogenic pollution has adversely affected almost

every habitat on the planet. The badly damaged and de-

terred are marine marginal bodies like, estuaries, creeks,

lakes etc. The world wide explosion human population

has resulted in dramatic changes in the quality and quan-

tity of estuarine environment. This has produced sub-

stantial changes to the biota of many of the more shel-

tered coastal marine and brackish environment. Pollut-

ants derived from mine tailings have been shown to ac-

cumulate in estuarine sediments, reaching concentrations

potentially capable of causing biological effects, how-

ever, is difficult due to strong natural environmental gra-

dients and the effects of past or present point-sources of

contamination [1-3].

The character of foraminifera to document pollution

signatures and preserve them was proposed to be poten-

tial tool for temporal pollution monitoring studies [4].

Nevertheless, one of the short comings of this work that

hampered the effective application of foraminifers for

pollution monitoring was the lack of availability of stu-

dies documenting presence of specific pollutants and also

the pressure of similar foraminiferal characteristics from

few naturally stressed areas [5]. The application of fo-

raminifera for pollution studies was key because of their

high sensitivity to minute variations in density (abun-

dance) and diversity. Because of this sensitivity fora-

minifera is considered to be one of the most useful pro-

xies for the ecotoxicological studies in marine environ-

ment in general and the marginal near shore environment

in specific [4]. Thus pollution affects all aspects of life

on earth and the incorporation of these effects of pollu-

tants by some of the life forms like foraminifera make

them effective indicator for pollution.

Foraminifers are extremely sensitive to the slightest

change in the environmental conditions. They have good

preservation and fossilization potential and thus have

been used extensively in pollution studies across the

world [4,6-12]. The application of foraminifera for pol-

lution monitoring is based on the variation in population

or density (Total Foraminiferal Number, TFN), species

diversity (Total Species Number, TSN) and abnormali-

ties documented by the test morphology [13,14]. The

present paper attempts to investigate the impact of iron

ore dust on the foraminiferal density (TFN; abundance)

and diversity (TSN) of Uppateru river estuary, which

Impact of Iron Ore Tailing on Foraminifera of the Uppateru River Estuary, East Coast of India

214

hither to remain unstudied. This study is considered to be

first of its kind carried out from study area with respect

to iron ore tailings.

1.2. Study Area

India’s 6300 km long coast line like any other coast line

in the world is a store house of various resources. On its

east coast, having a length of 2300 km, Nellore coast (60

km) is famous for iron ore export. The export activity

results in huge quantities of mining rejects that make

their way to estuary during the monsoons and finally into

the Bay of Bengal. Nevertheless, it is understood that the

ability of any system to withstand and absorb pollutants

is limited and therefore, these mining activities take their

toll on marine biota.

Uppateru estuarine complex (Krishnapatnam Port) has

a great significance because it is not only a godown/

storehouse of iron ore (International supplier of iron ore)

but also one of the key harbors along the east coast of

India. The estuary is being used for export traffic.

Therefore, the estuary is considered for the present study

to monitor the effect of iron ore tailing on foraminiferal

assemblages.

Topography: Uppateru has an area of approximately

100 km2. It is located between 14˚07' and 14˚10' N and

80˚03' and 80˚06' E (Figure 1). The water depth during

fauna is around 1m to 4 m. The fresh water it receives is

from the tributary Uppateru of the river Penna. The estu-

ary opens in to Bay of Bengal at its mouth and in this

channel area the tidal effect is always manifested.

Hydrography: Shallow water bodies wherein average

depth is less than 3 m are more abundant than the deep

bodies and are refereed to as wetlands. The present study

area comes under wetland category. The riverlets that

open into it bring approximately 100,000 lakh ton of silt.

In the estuary, the sediments are mostly muddy in nature

with an admixture of mud and fine sand. The sediments

of the estuary become coarser with distance towards the

mouth and there is a Bay-ward decrease in mud.

Geography: The present study area is slightly mode-

rate and laterally compressed by sand along east coast of

India. Development of sandbars and crenulated appear-

ance of mouths may be due to constant working of the

water currents on the coastal front. The region around

this estuary is represented more or less level land com-

posed of recent deposits such as marine deposits, depo-

sits, and sand dunes. The marine deposits formed mainly

as a result of regression of the sea and modified by in

part by fluvitale process. The alluvium of these rivers is

essentially composed of sand, silt and clay in varying

proportions and is restricted to very narrow strips in the

banks of the river and tributaries. They are usually pale

gray and occasionally dark brown. This was result of

admixture with laterities, which derived from laterite

desposits cropping out in a large area around the estuary.

The estuary is rather narrow probably because of the

moister northeast trade winds not being the powerful

enough to carry the sand for inland, while the drier

southeast trade winds carry much of its back again to the

bay.

Geology: Geologically, the Nellore district forms part

of the Cudddapah supergroup and is covered mostly with

green-schist facies of metamorphic rocks of Precambrian

age. Iron ore mined from near by area is being trans-

ported by trucks and lorries to the Krishnapatam Port

(Uppateru estuary) for an international export. A daily

shipping of 50,000 - 60,000 tones of iron ore is being

transported by about 1200 - 1500 trucks to the Krishna-

patnam Port (Uppateru River estuary). Two millions

tones of iron ore are stacked in large dumps along the

shores of Uppateru estuary for shipment. Wind and rain

erode these dumps (mainly during the monsoons) trans-

porting material in water bodies. Thus, the estuarine wa-

ter contains a high concentration of Total Suspended

Matter (TSM) that comprises of iron ore. Uppateru estu-

ary being easily accessible and navigable forms to be the

cost-effective means of transporting mined ore. The

Krishnapatnam port, one of the emerging key harbors

along the east coast of India, handles an export load of

iron ore over 0.4 million tones per month. The study area

enjoys a warm tropical climate with an average rainfall

of 150 - 200 cm and an average temperature of 22˚C all

through the year, except December to February when it

is cool and pleasant [15].

2. Material and Methods

Using the Peterson grab, 14 bottom sediment samples

from different sites in the Uppateru estuary were col-

lected (Figure 1, Table 1). The location of each sample

site was determined by two permanent land marks. The

upper 2 cm of sediment collected was sampled and

stored in polyethylene bottles to avoid contamination.

From the study area, certain Physico-chemical parame-

ters like salinity, pH, Temp, Ec, Do, TSMetc., were

measured using Elico water analysis kit [16].

Foraminiferal Analysis: For carrying out foramina-

feral investigations, approximately 10 g of sediment

sample were first kept in the oven for drying over night

at 60˚C temperature. The dried samples were then soaked

in the water for a tray. To disperse, the lumps of clay in

the samples, sodium hexa-meta-phosphate was added

and kept for a day. Then hydrogen peroxide was added

and kept overnight to disintegrate organic matter. Finally,

the samples were washed through a 63 µ sieve a slow

shower with a low water pressure to prevent the fo-

raminiferal test breakage. The sand fraction thus ob-

Impact of Iron Ore Tailing on Foraminifera of the Uppateru River Estuary, East Coast of India

215

tained was dried and examined for foraminifera [13]. The

species are systematically arranged following [17]. The

total foraminiferal number (TFN) in each sample was

completed and standardized to 10 gram dry sediment,

foraminifers, almost entirely marine protozoans being

highly sensitive to their surroundings have been reliably

used to detect sources and extents of marine pollution [4].

The Total Species Number (TSN), is the absolute value

of diversity in the study area. Total Suspended Matter

(TSM) was determined by standard procedure [5].

3. Results

Investigations from water tropical climates have shown

that Iron ore tailings usually show higher concentrations

of dissolved Iron and particulate suspended matter, thus

changing the chemistry of water, sediment and bio ac-

cumulation [18]. TSM values range from 86.5 (st.13) to

280.5 mg/l (st.10) (Table 1). The middle estuary (st.8 -

10) has recorded a maximum depth (2.1 m) with less

dissolved oxygen (4.2 ml·l−1). Further, depth has also

positive bearing with the TSM recording a maximum

(280.5 mg/l) at middle estuary (st.10). The minimum

(86.5 mg/l) was recorded at the riverward (st.13). This is

because the shipment activity of iron ore is almost absent

at the upstream direction of the riverlet. The observed

trend of certain physico-chemical properties could be

attributed to the evaporation and subsequent dilution due

to precipitation and runoff from the catchment area dur-

Figure 1. Study are a with sampling stations.

Table 1. Sampling stations versus and physico-c he mic al parameters and TSM.

Temperature

(˚C)

Sampling

Stations

Latitude

(N)

Longitude

(E) pH

Air bottom

water

Depth

(meters)

Ec at 25˚C

(Millimhos/Cm) Salinity

Dissolved

oxygen

(ml·l−1)

Silica

(ml·l−1)

Organic

matter

(ml·l−1)

TSM

(mg/l)

1 14.24536 80.10828 7.8 35.6 34.51.2 86 36.84 14 0.99 213.5

2 14.24994 80.11031 7.6 35.8 34.52 80 36.34.5 16 1.06 110.2

3 14.25053 80.11683 7.5 35.9 34.81.8 74 35.24.6 27 1.98 105.9

4 14.24597 80.11613 7.8 35.8 35.71.4 59 35.24.4 30 1.56 98.2

5 14.24475 80.13108 7.9 35.6 34.50.9 67 35.23.9 30 0.99 201.3

6 14.25058 80.12917 7.8 35.7 34.50.7 81 35.93.5 20 0.98 146.5

7 14.25060 80.12639 7.5 35.8 34.51.5 86 36.84.1 11 1.25 196.5

8 14.25061 80.13454 7.2 35.8 35.61.8 81 36.24.3 26 2.22 250.3

9 14.23487 80.10427 7.8 35.7 34.52.1 61 35.64.2 24 2.37 269.5

10 14.24322 80.10842 7.9 38.9 34.71.5 68 35.64.7 21 1.99 280.5

11 14.24003 80.10739 7.8 35.8 34.41.6 81 35.23.6 19 1.98 125.3

12 14.24324 80.10231 7.5

35.5 34.51.9 70 36.54.5 18 1.35 93.4

13 14.25419 80.10961 7.5 35.7 34.50.9 71 35.64.2 28 1.64 86.5

14 14.24981 80.26643 7.9 35.8 34.50.7 66 35.24.7 35 1.12 119.2

Impact of Iron Ore Tailing on Foraminifera of the Uppateru River Estuary, East Coast of India

216

ing rainy season [19]. High pH (st.10; 7.9) of waters in

the middle estuary could be ascribed to increased photo-

synthetic assimilation of dissolved inorganic carbon by

planktons (Farrell et al., 1979). A similar effect could

also be produced by water evaporation of monocarbonate

[20]. The high alkalinity of estuarine waters might be

due to the use of detergents by neighboring population

washing of clothes, vehicles and utensils. A wash off

from area having calcite and dolomite minerals cloud

also partly contribute to the alkalinity [8]. Low dissolved

oxygen (st.6; 3.5) might also be due to anticipated higher

microbial activities. High dissolved oxygen (st.10; 4.7)

in the middle estuary could be anticipated lower micro-

bial activities. Further, microbial activities have negative

bearing with TSM. Decomposition of organic matter

might be an important factor in consumption of dissolved

oxygen [21]. It shows the middle estuary (st.8 - 10) has

considerable TSM than mouth and riverward direction.

This is because middle estuary is relatively stagnant than

mouth and river ward direction.

3.1. Foraminiferal Distribution

Examination of the TFN-TSM plot indicates that there is

considerable inverse relationship noticed (Figure 3). The

more TSM the less TFN and vice versa (Figures 2 and 3).

During 2006, this Krishnapatnam port was not much

used for export of iron ore. However, it has begun slowly

after 2006 and now huge quantities of iron ore trans-

ported from far west of Ananthapur and Bellary districts,

is store house for export at the banks of Uppateru river

estuary (Krishnapatnam). Before and during shipment a

considerable amount of iron ore dust/tailing is let in to

estuary and forms as total suspended matter (TSM). This

started to hamper the reproduction, abundance and diver-

sity of fauna (Figure 2). Usually, the foraminifers are

very sensitive to any possible slight change of distur-

bance of ecosystem. Owing to its sensitivity the life cy-

cle of fauna got effected and contaminant species were

extinct and some have badly affected [4,10]. A total of

36 foraminiferal species are here recorded in the surface

sediments (the upper 2 cm) of Uppateru (Table 2). Only

the census of dead specimens is discussed in this paper

with respect to the test density (TFN) and diversity (TSN)

and spatial distribution. Faunal diversity (TSN) in the

surface sediments of the lake average 22 ± 3 species per

sample (Table 2). Diversity values range from 4 - 27

species. Ammonia beccarii and Ammonia dentata are the

most dominant species in the surface sediments of the

study area and represent ~ 75% of the total dead assem-

blage. Ammonia beccari occurs through out the estuary

with a mean frequency of 68%, and has highest percent-

age (76%) during post monsoon (Figures 2 and 3). Dis-

tribution of total Miliolids is similar to that of Rotalids.

The agglutinated assemblage is rare in the estuary and is

100

200

300

400

500

600

12345678

Sampling Stations

Total crop (TFN)

P re m onsoon

2006

P ost mons oon

2006

P re m onsoon

2008

12345678

Sampling sta tions

Di versity (TSN)

P re m onsoon

2006

P ost mons oon

2006

P re m onsoon

2008

Figure 2. Total crop (TFN) and Diversity (TSN) v/s sam-

pling stations (TFN and TSN have not shown for sampling

stations 6 - 8 as the Fauna was absent in those stations in

premonsoon, 2006).

100

150

200

250

300

135791113

Sampli ng stations

T S M (mg/l ) an d T F N (P r e

monsonn 2008)

TSM ( mg /l)

TFN (Pre

m onsoo n 2008)

Figure 3. TSN and Total Foraminiferal Number (TFN)

erses sampling stations of Pre monsoon 2008. v

Impact of Iron Ore Tailing on Foraminifera of the Uppateru River Estuary, East Coast of India 217

Table 2. Faunal distribution versus sampling stations.

Sampling Stations

Pre Monsoon 2006 Post Monsoon 2006 Pre Monsoon 2008

S.No Species

1 2 34512345678 1 2 345

1 Adelosina Laevigata 1 1 8 7 1

2 Adelosinasemistrata 3 82

3 Ammobaculites Exiguous 328 54812 32

4 Ammonia Beccarii 23 92 5440116217686420328155162 554 5 25 54108

5 Ammonia Dentata 45 167 155 9 2 126 4 104 141

6 Aste r orotalia Trispinosa 46 45 28 2 216 40 32 25

7 Cibi c i d es L o b a t u l us 18

8 E lphidium Advena 11605 1

9 Elphidium Crispum 23 6 5

10 Elphidium Delicatulum 45 1 1 2

11 Elphidium Excavatum 2 12546 5 5 14 12

12 Elphidium Macellum 6 7 5 21 9 6 2

13 Elphidium Norvangi 2 4 1 658 2 2 2 1

14 Hanzawaia Nipponica 3 3 2 2 1 88 4 7

15 Haplopharagm iodes Hanckoki 143 1 141

16 Miliolinellasubrotunda 1 82 4 2

17 Nonion Grateloupi 1 5 1 8 6 2

18 Nonionella Labradorica 4 2 2 2 11 12 7 12 2

19 Pararotalia Nipponica 4 12

20 Poroeponides Lat eralis 2 81

21 Quinqueloculi n a Agglutinans 1 12 9

22 Quinqueloculina Bicornis 4 58 5

23 Quinqueloculina Lamarckiana 2 15

24 Quinqueloculina Milletti 220 2 24

25 Quinqueloculi n a Seminula 4 12

26 Quinqueloculi n a sp 4 4 4 4 516 8

27 Rolshausenia Rolshauseni 10 68 57 10

28 Siphogene r i na Raphanus 2 2 28

29 Spiroloculina Communis 23 6 2

30 Spiroloculina Depressa 2 1 1 45 5 10 1

31 Spiroloculina Henbesti 4 7 46 50 8 6

32 Textularia Agglutinans 4 1 81

33 Triloculina Striatitrigonula 628 9

34 Triloculina Tricarinata 1

35 Triloculina Trigonula 2

36 Trochammina G lobigeriniformis 1

Total (# specimens/10 grams of dry) 147 347 22744817947621847344953518090 229 78 180 2131262

Diversity (No.of specimen/sample) 13 15 812422715814519 27 8 6 771

Faunal distribution for Pre monsoon 2006 Note: Stations 6-14 w ere not given as there is no fauna recorded in those stations; Faunal distribution for Post mon-

soon—2006 Note : Stations 9-14 are not given as they have no fauna; Faunal distribution for Pre monsoon—present study Note : Stations 7-14 are not given as

ey have no fauna. th

Impact of Iron Ore Tailing on Foraminifera of the Uppateru River Estuary, East Coast of India

218

represented by Trochammina globigerinoformis. It is

absent from most of the estuary, occurring sporadically

in (st.6) post monsoon. The low foraminiferal density as

indicated by high values of TFM (Figure 3). Usually the

stressed conditions are unfavorable for most of the spe-

cies (Table 1). However, stressed condition favour some

species (Ammonia beccarii and Ammonia dentata) that

reproduce rapidly in the lake and attain a large biomass

with in a short time [22]. These high abundances in the

estuary surface sediments were found in areas dominated

by bioclastic sand and high carbonate content (st.8-10),

where as the minimum faunal density (TFN) was found

in areas dominated by fine grained (clay + silt) sediments.

Alternatively, dilution of iron ore tailings into fine-grained

sediments may account for the low test density in the

certain parts of the estuary.

Regarding the species diversity (TSN), the average

number of species per sample is about 22 ± 3 (range 4 -

27) but lower diversity co-occurs with lower faunal den-

sity (Table 2). The faunal assemblage recorded in this

study is, in general, as diverse as those previously re-

corded [15]. The decline of the both faunal density (TFN)

and diversity (TSN) is probably related to unfavorable

conditions, most likely exerted by the occurrence of high

TSM resulted from accumulation of iron ore dust at dif-

ferent parts of the estuary activated by the action of wind

and water. This may cause organic matter degradation by

aerobic and anaerobic bacteria [22]. This has been asso-

ciated with high mass mortality of benthos in the estuary.

Miliolids like Quinquelo culina seminu la are more in post

monsoon and has a positive correlation with salinity and

organic matters (Table 2). This Quinqueloculina sem i nula

is a “salinity” indicator species in the estuary and also

may benefit from the high organic matter. High fre-

quency species (Ammonia beccarii, Ammonia dentata

and Asteroro talia trispinosa) occur in the middle estuary

where medium grained sediments dominate. Their fre-

quency declines towards both the seaward and upstream

of river. These findings indicate a possible relationship

between these species and medium grained sediment.

Visual examination of the sediments show that most

sand-dominated substrates mainly consisting of bioclas-

tic materials such as foraminiferal tests, ostracod cara-

paces, pelecypod valves, gastropod shells and tubes of

polychetes, indicating that the calcareous fauna plays a

significant role in the carbonate budget of the estuary.

3.2. Foraminifera v/s Pollution

Ammonia beccarii a cosmopolitan and umbiguitous spe-

cies survived this iron ore tailing pollution. However, its

number was drastically decreased (Figure 2). Species

like Elphidium advena and Elphidium crispum were not

in abundance. Robust category like Quinqueloculina sp

was partially responded for this pollution. Some biota

like Elphidium norvangi was almost absent. [23] at-

tempted to reduce the confounding effect of the TSM

gradient on correlation between biota and contaminants

in the James river estuary, Virginia, by analyzing data

from different section of the gradient separately. In the

saline portions of the estuary, abundance and biomass of

dominant taxa were larger immediately below a large

sewage outfall but otherwise the community was similar

to that found away from the outfall [23]. In contrast, in

the tidal, freshwater part of the estuary, where the con-

founding influences of salinity and estuarine circulations

were absent, the fauna showed more wide spread

changes that correlated with contamination [1]. Commu-

nities showed least diversity in areas where TSM was

most abundant. There was a reasonable consistency in

the TSM that correlated with TFN (Figure 3). These

results indicate that relationship between micro faunal

communities and suites of pollutant variables in estuary

may change through time. However, the present study

has provided some correlational evidence consistent with

a biological effect of contamination derived from iron

ore shipment although, it suffers from many other factors

already existed in the estuarine environment. Measure-

ment of other, natural stressors, such as concentrations of

dissolved oxygen (Do), ammonia and sulphides and re-

dox potential, might have clarified the role of contami-

nants from iron ore dust [1]. Integrative assessments of

impact based on weight-of-evidence drawn from patterns

of distribution of contaminants and organisms in the filed

and toxicity pests [24] perhaps the most relative method

of identifying impacts of contaminates derived from

storm water on estuarine micro fauna [25]. The correla-

tive approach is there by made more robust by the addi-

tional use of toxicity tests. The former may provide evi-

dence, in the form of patterns of distribution of contami-

nants and fauna, consistent with an impact. In the ab-

sence of information on the distribution of contaminants,

on the other hand experimental approaches cannot dem-

onstrate an impact in a particular estuary [1]. Their value

lies testing the casual relationship underlying the correla-

tions. In addition, in order to get better understanding of

adverse effects of various anthropogenic activities, fo-

raminiferal analysis be made mandatory, during all pre

and post mining environmental impact assessment (EIA)

surveys.

4. Conclusions

Biological recovery studies have shown that foraminifera

responds rapidly to the environmental pollution [26].

This is due to short life cycle, readily passive dispersion

Impact of Iron Ore Tailing on Foraminifera of the Uppateru River Estuary, East Coast of India 219

and faster colonization [27]. This is in accor dance with

our observation of a fair correlation between total pol-

lutant contents and total morphological abnormality cou-

pled with spatial fluctuations. Conclusions of study are

derived as here under.

1) Density (abundance—TFN)) and diversity of fo-

raminiferal crop (TSN) has showed a wider fluctuation in

the study area. This may have resulted owing to iron ore

dust factor suspended in the water as Total Suspended

Matter (TSM).

2) The foraminiferal fauna is almost disappeared near

the disposable area of iron ore. However, recolonization

started immediately after the termination of disposal at

selected stations, but the species composition is still very

different from original one.

3) Low density (TFN—abundance of species) and di-

versity (TSN) occurred in almost all areas (sts1-14) of

the Krishnapatnam port activity site.

4) Although it is not a straight forward procedure to

distinguish between natural and anthropogenic effects/

stress an foraminifera, the mining related environmental

impact is so high compared to natural background impact

that we conclude that fluctuation in diversity and density

represent a useful biomarker for Iron ore tailing con-

tamination near Uppateru and that repeated sampling and

measurements in the future will improve the understand-

ing of long term biotic impacts [27].

5) Decrease in the TFN and increase in TSM values in

the year (2008) seem to indicate a possible increase in

the iron ore dump in the Uppateru area. This suggests the

determinations of estuarine health warrants further study.

6) In this study the diversity and density reduction of

foraminifera are used as retrogressive bioindicator of

iron ore tailing pollution.

5. Acknowledgements

NJR thanks Prof. A. R. Reddy, Vice-chancellor, Yogi

Vemana University, Kadapa. We thank Dr. Raymond L.

Kepner, Jr., USA, for improving the quality of English

language of the paper.

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