A Formative Study of an E-book Instructional Model in Early Literacy

doi:10.4236/ce.2011.21002

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Creative Education

2011. Vol. 2, No. 1, 10-17

A Formative Study of an E-book Instructional Model in Early

Literacy

Kathleen Roskos, Karen Burstein, Byeong-Keun You, Jeremy Brueck,

Carolyn O’Brien

1John Carroll University, Ohio, United States

2Southwest Institute for Families and Children, Scottsdale, United States

3The University of Akron, Akron, United States

Email: [email protected]

Received August 4th, 2010; revised February 7th, 2011; accepted February 12th, 2011.

The electronic book is a rapidly growing alternative to the conventional book even for very young children;

however, empirical studies on e-books as curricular tools in early literacy development and instruction are rare.

Few instructional designs have been developed and tested. This formative study investigates the potential func-

tionality and usability of a prototy pe 4-component e-book instructional model in a small sample of preschool

classrooms. Using qualitative analytic strategies, observational data of its components were examined to identify

salient indicators and design features, and to assess its feasibility. Results yielded design information on each

component: (1) e-book as a quality technology-mediated environment; (2) physical place criteria; (3) engage-

ment indicators; and (4) instructional potential. Strengths and weaknesses of the four-component model design

were identified for purposes of revision and stabilizing the model for further testing in a larger classroom sam-

ple.

Keywords: E-books, Preschool, Early Literacy

Introduction

For nearly everyone, the electronic book is a rapidly growing

alternative to the conventional book even for very young chil-

dren. Most major publishing houses and many major libraries

now offer e-book collections for young children, not to mention

the recent ‘apps’ available from iTunes downloadable to iPods,

iPads and iPhones. What the shift from page to screen might

mean for young literacy learners remains to be seen, although

that the e-book has arrived in their world is abundantly clear.

Equally uncertain is how the e-book ‘fits’ in the pr eschool

classroom as a curricular tool and an instructional resource

(Teale, 2010). Here we are adrift even as e-books for children

spread ever more widely into everyday life. Research is very

needed at this juncture to build an evidence base around

e-books for ‘edutainment’ as well as early literacy education

and to offer principles and methods for e-book pedagogy in

early childhood classrooms.

What We Know

In general, studies of e-book design show that children’s first

e-books are mediocre at best. Examining the technical design of

early childhood e-books, (de Jong & Bus, 2003) developed an

analytic method that rated digital elements of e-book construc-

tion. Coding a corpus of 55 Dutch commercial e-books for

features of multimedia, interactivity, print quality and quality of

“hotspot” click locations, their analysis revealed generally weak

designs in this corpus with many e-books containing low qual-

ity multimedia additions, limited child-text interactivity, and

hotspots irrelevant to the stor y line. Subsequent studies cor-

roborate the lackluster quality of most e-books available for

young children across cultures, reflecting what might be termed

overall ‘garden variety’ design (Roskos, Brueck, & Widman,

2009; Korat & Shamir, 2004).

Still, a growing body of primarily lab-based research points

to the potential of well-designed e-books for supporting and

influencing young children’s emerging literacy skills. In a se-

ries of studies r ooted in Paivio’s dual-coding theory (Pavio,

1986; Verhallen & colleagues, 2006), for example, found that

children lagging in language skills benefited from e-books with

rich visualizations and sounds and music. Redundancies in

these features in the e-book d esign appeared to mobilize chil-

dren’s mental energy and to re-invigorate their mental effort,

which led to improved story comprehension. Other researchers

have obtained similar findings—when e-book design features

draw children’s attention to words, they learn words (Segers,

2009). When design emphasizes emergent literacy skills (e.g.,

phonological awareness), they learn these skills (Shamir &

Korat, 2009). E-books, in sum, show promise as instructional

tools that may go beyond the power of traditional storybooks.

But empirical studies on e-books as curricular resources in

early literacy instruction are presently rare. Although some

preliminary research shows, for example, that kindergarteners

that received mobile device reading interventions profited, de-

monstrating gains in their beginning reading skills (Fishburn,

2008). The problems and educational effects of importing

e-book technology (touch screen computers, interactive white

boards, mobile devices) into the early literacy program in

K. ROSKOS ET AL. 11

classrooms have largely gone unexamined—which is not to say

that practical efforts have not been tried in classrooms.

Description of the Study

E-books will likely be a part of future early childhood class-

rooms, and in light of the thin evidence base on their role in

curriculum and instruction, we undertook a formative study to

investigate what e-book pedagogy for early literacy might look

like in the early childhood classroom (Reigeluth & Frick, 1999).

We approached our research from a design perspective—much

like an engineer—creating a prototype model for implementa-

tion in the classroom and testing it to begin a winnowing proc-

ess that informs the educational design (e-books in preschool

for purposes of early literacy instruction) and identifies design

features that are feasible and preferable in an instructional

model (Collins & Bielaczyc, 2004; Zaritsky, Flowers, Rogers,

& O’Neill, 2003).

At this early stage of prototype creation, we conceptualized

an e-book instructional model that was purposefully un-

der-specified to allow a wide-angle view of what it takes and

what happens when e-book technology is inserted into the pre-

school classroom. The model consists of four components

grounded in e-book studies (McKenna & Zucker, 2009) and the

knowledge base on early literacy instruction for young children

(National Early Literacy Panel, 2008).

 The e-book as a technology-mediated environment

 The physical place of e-book reading in the classroom

 Engagement in e-book reading for small groups and in-

dividuals

 Explicit instruction using e-books

Our research objectives were to observe, define the salient

attributes, and rate the functioning of each component in situ

toward the goal of framing a model for replication and further

testing. To this purpose we employed a qualitative approach

that focused on sorting, clustering, and aggregating observa-

tional data to derive quality indicators and design features.

Method

Sites and Participants

The model was implemented in four Early Reading First

classroom sites, two of which were located in the Midwest and

two in the Southwest region of the United States. Early Reading

First is a federally funded program that emphasizes science-

based instruction in early language, cognitive, and pre-reading

skills primarily serving poor children (U. S. Department of

Education, 2008). A convenience sample was used consisting

of a volunteer teacher and three children per site. (See Table 1.)

It should be no ted that Site 4 served majority special n eeds

children.

Procedures

The design process unfolded in four phases over a six-month

period as described in Figure1. Phase one involved setting de-

sign for small group and solo e-book reading in the classroom

environment. Feasibility studies were conducted in phases two

and three to gather data on the functionality (purpose and ca-

pacity for achieving learning outcomes) and usability (ease of

adoption and use in the setting) of the model components. Data

were analyzed in phase four to identify design strengths and

weaknesses and to frame the model for further testing.

Phase One. The design process in phase one yielded three

outcomes that set the stage for implementation of the model in

the sites: (1) a list of 68 mixed-genre e-books for e-book selec-

tion; (2) set-up specifications for an e-book nook in the class-

room; and (3) an online tutorial for teacher users. Access and

cost factors influenced the titles included in the e-book collec-

tion. Subscription rates for some e-book sources are less costly

than others and access to some e-book sources is limited on

mobile devices, such as iPod to uches. Equipment, furnishings

and space allocation were determining factors in the basic de-

sign of an e-book nook. (See Figure 2) The evidence base on

physical environment design in early childhood classrooms also

informed e-book nook specifications (Greenman, 1998; Moore,

2001). A short online tutorial was produced to demonstrate how

to use the equipment and model shared reading with an e-book.

Phases Two and Three. An 8-week feasibility study was

conducted to observe the implementation of the model in the

four sites. Teachers were asked to make arrangements for the

e-book nook in their classrooms; to plan for e-book reading

sessions for approximately 15 minutes 2 times per week; to

select an e-book from a pre-selected list of eight titles for

Table 1.

Participant Demographic s.

Classroom Site Teacher Child Sample n = 3 per site

Years of Experience Degree Mean Age in months Mean PPVT Standard

Score

1 – Midwest 16 Associate 54 97

2 – Midwest 12 Associate 50 96

3 – Southwest 14 Elem. Ed 57 84

4 --Southwest 2 Special Ed 44 69

Note: PPVT-III: Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (Dunn & Dunn, 1997).

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4

2 months 4 weeks 4 weeks 2 months

Setting Design Fea sibility Feasibility Data Analysis

Study 1 Study 2

Figure 1.

Time Frame of the Study.

K. ROSKOS ET AL.

Basic Design Specifications

 HP TouchSmart 600t All-in-One PC

 Apple 8 GB iPod Touch

 e-Book Subscription

 Clearly located in classroom; signage

 Seating for 3 children + teacher

 Low noise level

 Access to wifi + power outlets

Figure 2.

E-book nook Design.

repeated reading each week; and to follow an instructional pro-

tocol for teaching children target vocabulary words pre-selected

from the e-book set. Research on direct vocabulary instruction

was used to develop the instructional protocol (Roskos &

Burstein, 2009; Biemiller & Boote, 2006; Silverman, 2007) and

select vocabulary words for instruction (Roskos et al., 2008;

Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2003; Biemiller & Slonim, 2001).

A pool of 80 v ocabulary words from the e-book set w as

identified for direct instruction, using a 2-6-2 ‘rule of thumb’:

20% basic concept words; 60% root words; 20% sophisticated

words. Vocabulary instruction consisted of a say-tell-do routine

where teachers (T) and children (C) say a target word, tell a

child-friendly meaning of it, and do a gesture related to word

meaning if appropriate. For example, T says: I say shovel; we

say: shovel; T tells: A shovel, is a tool with a handle. We dig

with it. Children tell one another [as best as they can]: Shovel is

a tool with a handle. We dig with it. T shows with gestures:

Let’s dig with our shovel. Children show gestures of digging

with a shovel. Teachers were guided to use the say-tell-do rou-

tine before reading the e-book; during reading as appropriate;

and to briefly review words after read ing in each e-book ses-

sion.

The initial 4-week implementation was focused on e-book

reading in small groups; the second on small group e-book

reading was followed by solo reading of the same story on the

mobile device. Two debriefs with teacher pairs were con-

ducted—one at the 4-week midpoint and the other at the end of

the 8-week period.

Videotaped observations of e-book reading sessions were

made using the web-cam on the All-in-One-Touch Smart PC to

capture children’s behaviors and a FLIP camera operated by a

literacy coach to capture teacher behaviors, totaling 15 hours.

Debriefs were conducted for approximately 1 hour using adobe

acrobat and were audio taped. Teachers regularly used a

one-page lesson plan form to record weekly planning for the

e-book sessions. Pre/post measures on children’s learning of

target vocabulary used a Curriculum-Based Decision Measure

(CBDM) approach developed by the researchers (Ergul, Burs-

tein, & Bryan, in press).

Phase Four. During and following the feasibility study, data

were processed using Carney’s ladder of abstraction as a guide

(Carney, 1990). Our analytic goal was to formatively assess the

functionality of the model in the preschool learning environ-

ment and to gauge its potential usability in early literacy prac-

tice. Initially videotaped data of the e-book sessions were up-

loaded into NVivo 8 (QSR International, 2007), qualitative

analysis software, and organized into a priori nodes represent-

ing broad categories of instructional activity: organization,

support, and affect. Each ‘tree node’ was repeatedly scanned

for salient indicators in each category, each indicator referred to

as a ‘child.’ Salient indicators in each category were labeled

and organized with initial descriptors into a set of indices for

queries. (See appendix.) Worksheets for calculating the pres-

ence/absence of teaching actions per the vocabulary instruction

protocol were developed. Debriefings were su mmarized into

research memoranda. Lesson plans were reviewed or marked for

evidence of planning before, during and after each e-book ses-

sion. E-book quality was summarized using a research-based

evaluation (Roskos, Brueck, & Widman, 2009).

Following this initial level of abstraction, observational data

were next re-organized and aggregated to determine frequen-

cies of salient indicators in each component and discern pat-

terns. E-books were examined for evidence of research-based

design features related to book assistants (e.g., start/stop/pause

buttons), multimedia illustrations, print, and i nteractivity (de

Jong & Bus, 20 03). Physical design criteria were used to ex-

amine video/photo samples of the e-book nook as a physical

place in the preschool classroom, including location, signage,

space allocation, acoustics and access to e-books (Roskos, 2008;

Greenman, 2005). To gain a wide-angle view of engagement

and instruction during e-book sessions, videotaped data were

examined for indices in two ways. Presence of salient indicators

in the broad categories of activity was identified at 1-minute

intervals in a sub-sample of e- book sessions ( 8 per teach er

counter-balanced for e-book session) and fidelity to the instruc-

tional protocol was examined at 30-second intervals on all

e-book sessions. These data were cross-referenced with teach-

ers’ comments in debriefs and their lesson plans.

Adapting a typological analytic strategy (Lofland, 1971) ob-

servational data on each component were further abstracted into

higher order categories of function and use in the form of rat-

ings based on a rudimentary 0-3 rating scale to represent evi-

dence of presence (0 = no presence; 1 = low presence; 2 =

moderate presence; 3 = high presence) of indicators. Similar to

Consumer Reports, ratings were organized into matrices for

purposes of assessment.

Results

E-book Quality

Table 2 summarizes the ratings of e-book titles used to ‘test’

the model related to presence of book assistants, multimedia

illustrations and print, and interactivity as quality indicators. A

signature design feature of e-books multimedia had a moderate

presence in the set as did book assistants, but interactivity de-

sign features fell into the low range. Design features were

strongest in the folk tale (Jack and the Beanstalk), and weakest

in two narratives (Mike and the Bike and Mud Puddle), and one

informational book (Diary of a Spider). The total mean rating

of 1.75 suggests an overall garden-variety e-book design that

may detract from the overall functionality and usability of the

K. ROSKOS ET AL. 13

Table 2

Rating of Key Features of E-book Quality.

Book Title Design Features Mean

Book Assists Multimedia Illus-

trations and Print

Interactivity

Bugs, Bugs, Bugs 3 (67%) 2 (60%) 1 (17%) 2.00

How Zebras Got Their Stripes 3 (67%) 2 (60%) 1 (17%) 2.00

Diary of a Spider 1 (33%) 2 (60%) 1 (17%) 1.33

Jack and the Beanstalk 3 (67%) 2 (60%) 2 (50%) 2.33

Fire Station 1 (33%) 2 (60%) 1 (17%) 1.33

Mike and the Bike 1 (33%) 3 (80%) 0 ( 0%) 1.33

Mud Puddle 1 (33%) 3 (80%) 1 (17%) 1.67

Subway Ride 3 (67%) 2 (60%) 1 (17%) 2.00

Total Mean 2.00 2.25 1.00 1.75

Percentage Benchmarks

3 = 67-100%; 2 = 34-66%; 1 = 1-33%; 0 = 0%

model in t erms of e arly literacy learning outcomes. Design

features included the fundamentals of e-books for young chil-

dren, namely basic e-book assistants (start-stop features), ani-

mated illustrations and print highlights (largely at the sentence

level), music, and voice narration, but few opportunities to

interact with the content or text (e.g., hotspots).

Physical Place

Ratings of the e-book nooks as distinct settings in the class-

room sites per the physical design criteria are displayed in

Table 3. Analysis of the matrix data points to relatively weak

implementation of this component in the built environment

with a total mean of 1.3. Signage, for example, was totally ab-

sent in all sites, which may reflect a lack of signage generally in

the preschool environments. Access to the inter-net and power

sources was also very weak, and likely interfered with consis-

tent quality in the e-book reading sessions. Features of setting

location and spatial arrangement and appeal were also in the

low range, and again may reflect the broader design qualities of

the settings. Attention to acoustical features showed the highest

rating, perhaps because the teachers needed to ensure children

could hear the e-book narration during e-book reading sessions.

Overall, the poor showing of physical place criteria is disap-

pointing since teachers showed a genuine eagerness to create

the e-book nooks in their classrooms. More explicit guid ance

and examples may be needed to help teachers envision what an

e-book nook might look like in the physical environment.

Engagement

Four data sources were clustered to r ate the presence of

teacher-child engagement during the e-book shared reading

sessions: (i) teacher-child motor behaviors at the touch screen

(e.g., pointing); (ii) children’s facial gestures during e-book

reading (e.g., smiling); (iii) teacher-child control of the e-book

reading on the touch screen; and (iv) children’s attention indi-

cated by directional eye gaze toward the touch screen. Frequen-

cies in each cluster were calculated based on the video observa-

tional data coded at 1-minute intervals; arbitrary benchmarks

were established to rate engagement. These data are summa-

rized in Table 4. It is important to note that the length of e-book

sessions in classroom 2 were substantially shorter than those in

the other sites, on average about 12 minutes long, thus reducing

the opportunity for demonstrations of engagement. Th at class-

room 4 served only special needs children should also be noted.

The strongest evidence of this component is demonstrated in

facial gestures that indicate children’s positive responses to

screen content. They frequently smiled, contemplated, and

gazed intently at the screen across e-book r eading sessions,

suggesting their interest in the stories. Motor b ehaviors also

provide strong evidence of engagement on the part of partici-

pants where positive types are high and negative types low.

Incidences of pointing and sitting still predominated over those

of wiggling and shifting about ‘as if’ uninterested. Children’s

focal attention to teacher and screen also provides evidence of

moderate-to-high engagement in the e-book reading across

sites.

The weakest evidence of engagement involved shared con-

trol of the e-book screen. This indicator of engagement did not

appear well organized or managed at this point. Several teach-

ers reported that asking children to manipulate the controls at

the touch screen proved disruptive, diverting children’s atten-

tion from the story line. This, however, represents a negative

design feature o f this component. Children’s interactive par-

ticipation, such as finger-tracking print, pointing to words and

page-turning, is a staple of the shared book instructional routine

(Mason, Peterman & Kerr, 1989) because it has been found to

develop children’s knowledge of print conventions which are

foundational in the learn-to-read process (Morris, 1992).

Shared control of the e-book reading screen, therefore, is a

critical design factor that needs to be addressed and embedded

in the model.

Instruction

The model limits instruction to empirical techniques that

support essential early literacy skills (National Early Literacy

Panel, 2008). Instruction, therefore, is defined largely by fidel-

ity to scientifically proven and promising instructional proce-

dures and sequences (See, for example, p 14 of guidelines for

teaching phonemic awareness (Vaughn & Linan-Thompson,

2004). The prototype model in this study used a direct instruc-

tion vocabulary sequence referred to as say-tell-do to ‘test’ the

viability of the instruction component in the classroom sites

(Roskos & Burstein, 2009). The procedure includes 12 teaching

actions before, during and after shared reading that guide in-

struction. In addition to evidence of fidelity to the instructional

procedure (12 teaching actions), observational data on mean

length of session, the percent of teacher explanations of target

words during sessions and child use of target words during

sessions were calculated and rated to assess how well the in-

struction component functioned in the e-book shared reading

K. ROSKOS ET AL.

Table 3.

Physical Place Crit eria Ratings by Classroom Site.

Site Design Features Mean

Location Signage Space Acoustics Access

Classroom 1 1 0 1 3 1 1.2

Classroom 2 2 0 1 2 1 1.2

Classroom 3 2 0 2 2 1 1.4

Classroom 4 2 0 2 2 1 1.4

Total Mean 1.75 0 1.50 2.25 1.00 1.3

Criteria Rubric

Location: 3 = clearly defined enclosure; 2 = somewhat defined; 1 = poorly defined; 0 = no enclosure.

Signage: 3 = clear signage using print & picture; 2 = printed sign; 1= picture; 0 = no sign

Space: 3 = inviting with comfortable eating, light, color, graphics; 2 = attractive with adequate seating for viewing; adequate light; some coordinated color; 1 = basic

setting with seating for viewing; poorly lit; uncoordinated color; 0=no pre-arranged seating.

Acoustics: 3 = low external sound levels; 2 = ordinary background noise; 1 = high volume background noise; interruptions 0 = persistent distracting, loud noises;

interruptions

Access: 3 high-speed wifi access; >3 power outlets available; 2 = adequate speed wifi or wired; 2 power outlets available; 1 = slow speed wifi or wired access;1

power outlet available; 0 = no wifi; extension cords

Table 4.

Ratings of Engagement by Classroom.

Classroom Motor Facial Gestures E-book Control Attention Mean

+ – + – Child T + –

1 3 (104) 3(43) 3(169) 3(0) 1 (11) 1(293) 2(73) 2(13) 2.25

2 1 (34) 3(46) 1(70) 3(0) 1 (0) 1(183) 2(70) 2(18) 1.75

3 3 (129) 2(59) 3(191) 3(0) 1 (0) 1(306) 3(169) 3(8) 2.38

4 2 (88) 3(50) 2(141) 3(2) 1(23) 1(262) 3(145) 1(37) 2.00

Total Mean 2.25 2.25 2.25 3.00 1.00 1.00 2.50 2.00 2.10

Frequency Benchmarks

Motor + (e.g., pointing): 1 = 0 - 50; 2 = 1 - 100; 3 => 100

Motor – (e.g., wiggling): 1 > 100; 2 = 51 - 100; 3 = 1-50

Facial + (e.g., smiling): 1=1 - 75; 2=76 - 150; 3=>150

Facial – (e.g., bored): 1 > 30; 2 = 20 - 30; 3 = 0 - 19

E-book Control-Child: 1=1 - 75; 2 =7 6 - 150; 3 => 150

E-book Control-T: 1 => 150; 2 = 75 - 150; 3 =< 75

Attention + (to screen) 1 = 1 - 50; 2 = 51 - 100; 3 > 100

Attention – (distracted): 1 => 25; 2 = 10 - 25; 3 =< 10

sessions. Ratings are shown in Table 5.

Implementation of this component shows considerable vari-

ability, particularly across indices of fidelity, session length and

teacher explanations, which we might expect given the dynam-

ics of instruction in real classrooms. Two patterns in the com-

ponent are notable. With the exception of site 2, evidence of

fidelity to the instructional protocol—the 12 teaching ac-

tions—is moderate to strong, which suggests the potential

strength of an explicit procedure as a design feature. But the

generally weak presence of teacher language that supports word

learning (explaining word meanings) also suggests that a pro-

tocol is an insufficient design feature, in and of itself. Individ-

ual teacher knowledge and skill is a powerful factor and needs

to be consi dered in the desig n. More training and self-monitoring

may need to be ‘built into’ the design to improve the function-

ality and usability of this component. Still, it is worth noting the

strong showing of child language in the functioning of this

component that provides further evidence of an explicit instruc-

tional protocol as a critical design feature that contributes to the

overall functionality of the model for achieving learning out-

comes. As a proxy for functionality, the CBDM pre/post results

support this conjecture showing that children made vocabulary

gains in either receptive or expressive vocabulary in the im-

plementation sites. (See Table 6)

Discussion

Given the dearth of research on e-book pedagogy in early lit-

eracy, we conceptualized and formatively tested a four-compo-

nent model as an instructional framework for integrating e-books

into the early literacy program. In this small-scale study, we im-

plemented our original design concept of the model in four p re-

school classrooms to observe the functionality and usability of its

components with the goal of stabilizing the model for more rig-

orous testing. Salient indicators of each component were identi-

fied, organized at different le vels of a bstraction, and assigne d

ratings to yield an assessment of design strengths and weaknesses

as a basis for further model development. In brief, the design

analysis revealed the need for better quality e-books; more pre-

cise design specifications for an e-book nook in the classroom

setting; more explicit guidance for child engagement during

e-book reading sessions; and stronger teacher training on ‘how

to’ use instructional procedures and skills in shared e-book read-

ing. Additionally, the successive analyses yielded a stronger and

more parsimonious set of indices for observing component func-

tion and use in subsequent design studies. Engagement indices,

for example, were collapsed into four categories (motor; facial

gesture; e-book control; attention) each with a few markers that

can be organized into a more streamlined observation checklist.

K. ROSKOS ET AL. 15

Table 5.

Ratings for Instruct i o n b y C l a s s r o o m .

Classroom Fidelity to Instruc-

tional Protocol Length of Session Teacher Language

(Explaining)

Child Language

(Target Word Use) Mean

1 3.00 (550) 3.00 (17:00) 2.00 (18%) 2.00 (44%) 2.50

2 1.00 (260) 1.00 (12:10) 1.00 (12%) 2.00 (41%) 1.25

3 3.00 (535) 2.00 (14:40) 3.00 (25%) 3.00 (55%) 2.75

4 2.00 (437) 3.00 (16:27) 1.00 (13%) 3.00 (54%) 2.25

Total Mean 2.25 (446) 2.25 (15:04) 1.75 (17%) 2.50 (49%) 2.19

Frequency, Time and Percentage Benchmarks

Fidelity of Implementation: 3 => 500; 2 = 300 - 500; 1 = < 300

Length of Session: 3 => 150; 2 = 13 - 16; 1 = < 3min

Teacher Language: 3 => 20; 2 = 15 - 20; 1 =< 15%

Child Language: 3 = > 50; 2 = 4 0- 50; 1 =< 40%

Table 6.

Child Performance Across Classrooms.

Classroom Mean Pre Recep-

tive Assessment

Mean Post Recep-

tive

Assessment

Mean Receptive

Gain/Loss

Mean Pre Expres-

sive

Assessment

Mean Post Ex-

pressive

Assessment

Mean Expressive

Gain/Loss

1 13.33 16.33 3.00 7.00 14.67 7.60

2 14.00 16.67 2.67 9.33 8.00 –1.33

3 14.33 19.67 5.33 12.00 18.67 6.70

4 9.00 8.00 –1.00 6.33 9.67 3.30

Several strengths in the functionality and usability of the

model components emerged . Functionality of the instruction

component, for example, appeared to be enhanced by the inclu-

sion of an explicit instructional procedure, as demonstrated in

fidelity to a direct vocabulary instruction protocol that appeared

to yield gains in children’s vocabulary across implementation

sites. The relative power of this feature in the component de-

sign needs further testing. Functionality of the engagement

component emerged in teacher-child motor behaviors at the

screen, as wel l as children’s generally positive affect in the

context. Usability was marked by a flexibility or ‘play’ in the

components that allowed teachers to make adaptations in terms

of e-book selection, physical arrangements, and planning for

and organizing sessions to facilitate engagement and instruc-

tion.

Considerable design in each of the components remains,

however, to stabilize the model for more rigorous testing in

classrooms. One, a high quality set of e-books for preschoolers

needs to be identified and described, including titles, brief an-

notations, source information and costs. Two, design specifica-

tions of the e-book nook need to be better articulated (e.g.,

equipment, space needs, identity, technology access) and pho-

to/graphic examples provided to aid teachers in setting up the

e-book nook in their classrooms. Three, guidelines for engaging

children at the screen during e-book shared reading sessions

need to be developed in collaboration with teachers to support

children’s active participation in shared e-book reading and to

develop screen reading motor skills. Four, online professional

development materials need to be developed that train teachers

in the ‘how to’ of e-book reading (e.g., pacing, pausing, sci-

ence-based protocols) and deepen their book-reading language

facilitation skills, such as asking questions, clarifying content,

extending ideas, etc). Brief computer-based tutorials that out-

line step-by-step ‘how to’ implement the model in the class-

room would also be helpful. Following these improvements,

further design-based research can be pursued on a larger scale

that develops a more functional and usable model in the pre-

school setting.

Limitations

Our results at this formative stage are limited by several fac-

tors. Technically, the poor quality of some videotaped observa-

tions (e.g., too much background noise) rendered them unus-

able for coding. As a result, relevant data may have been lost

and not included in the successive analyses that yielded rating

scores, thus degrading the d esign information. Site logistics

were difficult due to external factors (e.g., teacher schedules,

absences, mandatory meetings), which eroded the quality of

training, site management and debriefings and likely compro-

mised these observational data for design purposes. Analyti-

cally, disciplined data analyses at successively higher levels of

abstraction proved very challenging in a collaborative research

approach, which led to some miss-steps in coding and cate-

gory-reduction that influenced the emerging assessment of

functionality and usability using a rating system. At times frus-

trating, this process nonetheless produced refinements in the set

of indices for observing the model and guided design changes

for the next phase of model development and testing.

Conclusion

The e-book represents a technological advance in the book

from a two-dimensional to a three-dimensional information tool,

replacing the page with the screen and enlivening text with rich

imagery, sound, and animation (Kress, 2003). Research on what

this evolution means for early literacy learning is indeed young,

but pioneer studies point to the potential of these new dynamic

features for supporting children’s emerging literacy skills and

abilities (Segers, Nooijen, & deMoor, 2006; Shamir & Korat,

2009; Verhallen, Bus, & deJong, 2006). The important research

K. ROSKOS ET AL.

task, however, is not only to understand how these new age

tools impact early literacy development and learning processes,

but also to understand how to use them well in preschool early

literacy education. Our e-book model is a design framework

that moves in this direction and our ambitious goal is to dem-

onstrate ‘proof of concept’ that improves the instructional po-

tential of t he literacy-learning environment for teachers and

children. We are at the start-point of this research agenda.

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K. ROSKOS ET AL. 17

Appendix

Initial Set of Indices for Coding Observational Data

Node Salient Indicators (Child) Descriptors

Organization Position Sitting

Kneeling

Laying

Standing

Location Chair

Floor

Pillow

Bench

Controls Auto

Manual

Teacher

Child

Supports Attention Eye Gaze

Look

Motor Pointing

Moving About

Language Directing

Explaining

Questioning

Extending

Feedback

Peer to Peer

Affect Gestures Smiling

Clapping

Frowning

Contemplating

Puzzling

Being Scared

Language Expressive

Comments

Squeals

Noises

Personalization Curiosity

Interest

Self-talk