Comparative Analysis of Cartographic Literacy in the Selected Curricula at the Primary Level

doi:10.4236/ce.2013.412107

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Creative Education

2013. Vol.4, No.12, 757-761

Published Online December 2013 in SciRes (http://www.scirp.org/journal/ce) http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ce.2013.412107

Open Access 757

Comparative Analysis of Cartographic Literacy in the Selected

Curricula at the Primary Level

Vlasta Hus, Tina Hojnik

Department of Primary Education, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia

Email: [email protected]

Received October 22nd, 2013; November 22nd, 2013; accepted November 29th, 2013

mons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, pro-

vided the original work is properly cited. In accordance of the Creative Commons Attribution License all Copy-

Basic knowledge of maps, because of its widespread use, has become a part of the individual’s modern

literacy. This is why we were interested in how this kind of literacy which is represented in schools, when

it occurs and how it is upgraded. Based on the study of literature we have formed criteria of cartographic

literacy and based on the comparative method we have compared and curricula for the lower stage of

primary education of two countries (England and Slovenia). We found that cartographic literacy is given

most attention, as well as in content of in didactic recommendations, in the Slovene curriculum for Social

Studies (second triad). But according to the pupils’ cognitive abilities, it is being introduced too late. In

the English curriculum for Geography initial cartography is far more dependent on the teachers and their

cartography knowledge (or lack of it) because of the general definition of objectives and lack of recom-

mendations. A combination of such an open curriculum and teacher’s cartography knowledge (or lack of

it) can push cartographic literacy a step back from other content. That is why educating teachers and pay-

ing attention to the matter either in the curriculum or in textbook sets are of utmost importance.

Keywords: Curricula; Primary Level of Education; Cartographic Literacy

Introduction

Maps are a highly concentrated source of information and an

important information-communication means. They are a basic

tool for learning and understanding of Earth’s surface and ob-

jects on it and means of acquiring a variety of knowledge and

information. We use them at almost every step, e.g. knowledge

of World’s geography, travelling to remote places, reading

roadmaps, familiarization with weather imagery, etc. For ob-

taining reading techniques and communication with the maps

the term cartographic literacy was therefore introduced. Its

intention was to train an individual for a flawless use of maps,

which means that the user must comprehend its content, inter-

pret it and also visualize displayed area.

Cartographic literacy is a complex mental activity and as

such a long-term process. Its success depends on several factors

(e.g. on child’s age, his mental development, needs, experi-

ences; quality of used maps, etc.). Basic techniques and skills to

read maps are differently defined in literature. Mostly they

classify them as comprehension of perspective, orientation and

direction, comprehension of map scale, cartographic language

and land relief (Umek, 2001a). In acquiring these basic ele-

ments pupil passes through three levels of difficulty, namely

material level (collecting concrete experiences about space),

cartographic level (conversion of these experiences into parts of

the map) and only then carrying out thought processes on an

abstract level (Verhetsel, 1994).

Cartographic literacy is a part of functional literacy therefore

at least the same amount of attention should be given to map

comprehension as it is given to reading literacy. This led us to

explore teaching cartographic literacy in schools in two coun-

tries, namely Slovenia and England. We focused on the primary

level of education. Decision was based on the reviewed litera-

ture where we determined that children are already capable to

comprehend many properly adjusted map components in the

pre-school period. In the curricula we reviewed cartographic

objectives and basic cognitions of this field (when and how

they are included in the curricula of both countries). We were

also interested in the support that curricula offer teachers in

didactic recommendations, teaching methods, forms and tech-

niques. We were also interested in what kind of autonomy cur-

ricula grant the teachers and what kind of influence it has on

cartographic literacy.

Methodology

Descriptive analysis was used based on the study of profes-

sional literature. Reviewed literature refers to so far existing

general didactic findings and to narrow didactic findings of

geography and psychology on cartographic literacy. We used

the comparative method of scientific educational research. This

was used to compare cartographic literacy on the primary level

from Slovene curricula for the Environmental Studies (Kolar,

Kostanjšek, Krnel, Pertič, Umek, & Velkavrh, 2011) and Social

Studies subject (Budnar, Hus, Kerin, Kos, Mirt, Raztresen, &

Umek, 2011) as well as from the English curriculum for Geog-

V. HUS, T. HOJNIK

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758

raphy (The National Curriculum for England. Geography,

1999). This was done with the intention of discovering similari-

ties and differences. For comparative analysis we prepared the

criteria in advance and while forming them we derived from

basic criteria of the curricula and from basic components of

cartographic literacy as defined by Umek (2001a). The latter

was described in detail during the article:

1) An overview of the objectives and basic skills for the car-

tography classes in the selected curricula.

2) The integration of the basic components of cartographic

literacy in the selected curricula.

3) The contents of the objectives that foresee use, reading,

drawing and interpretation of maps.

4) Teachers’ autonomy, teaching forms, methods and tech-

niques for teaching initial cartography in the selected countries.

5) Didactic recommendations and additional help for the

teachers of cartographic literacy.

In the sample of comparison we included the first and the

second educational period in England which is comparable

across time with the class level or the first and partly second

triad of Slovene nine-year primary school. We compared crite-

ria according to pupils’ age level—it means that we compared

the first educational period (Key stage 1) in England (children

aged five to seven years) with the first class of Slovene nine-

year school (children aged six to seven years). Second educa-

tional period (Key stage 2) in England (children aged seven to

eleven years) was compared with second, third, fourth and fifth

grade of the Slovene nine-year school (children aged seven to

eleven years). We should explain that pupils in England are

admitted to school at the age of five and in Slovenia at the age

of six. This type of schooling in England is three years longer

and is divided into four educational periods and in Slovenia

into three trienniums.

An Overview of the Objectives and Basic Skills

for the Cartography Classes in the Selected

Curricula

In the reviewed curricula we searched for cartographic ob-

jectives and basic cognitions of cartography and we compared

their number, content and vertical upgrade. The objectives in

the English curricula are written in the form of reference points,

namely for each educational period. The objectives in the Slo-

vene curricula are precisely defined and written for each grade

separately but with the curricula reform they have stayed only

as a recommendation where teacher himself decides whether it

will be implemented as it is recommended or at a slower or

faster pace.

Basic cognitions are knowledge, skills and comprehensions

that pupils should acquire at the end of certain educational pe-

riod. Similar to objectives basic cognitions from cartographic

literacy are more precisely defined in the Slovene curricula

whereas English basic cognitions are more general and do not

specifically apply to cartographic literacy. Discussed basic

cognitions are consistently upgraded in curricula of both coun-

tries.

There are few cartographic objectives and basic cognitions in

the reviewed curricula especially in the first age period (five to

seven years). Here we found three objectives and three basic

cognitions regarding cartography in the Slovene curriculum,

and in English curriculum there were eight objectives and six

basic cognitions that can be associated with cartography. In the

second age period (seven to eleven years) we found twenty-one

objectives and fifteen basic cognitions of cartography and in

English there were ten objectives and five basic cognitions that

can be associated with cartography.

The difference in content among the discussed objectives for

the first educational period in the curricula of both countries is

that pupils in England get acquainted with a greater cognitive

space earlier than their peers in Slovenia and English pupils (up

to seven years of age) also learn about not only natural (as it is

foreseen in the Slovene curriculum) but also about social char-

acteristics of local landscape. Both are compared to the so

called contrastive landscape. The advantage of the latter is a

better understanding of discussed characteristics and awareness

about places outside of local landscape. In Slovene curricula a

similar objective is stated among basic cognitions that pupils

should acquire a bit later (up to nine years of age).

The content of the objectives that can be associated with car-

tographic literacy in the second age period (seven to eleven

years) is similar in the curricula of both countries, except that in

the Slovene curricula they are more concretely defined. In both

countries broadening of cognitive space from local landscape to

landscapes around the world is expected, as well as describing

and identifying natural and social characteristics of discussed

landscapes; using various strategies, primary and secondary

sources to learn about landscapes where they base their explo-

ration on their knowledge.

The Integration of the Basic Components of

Cartographic Literacy in the Selected Curricula

As mentioned before we have taken the basic components of

cartographic literacy after Umek (2001a), namely bird perspec-

tive, orientation, cartographic symbols, land relief and map

scale. We were interested for which age level of the pupils and

in which way these basic components are foreseen and included

in the curricula.

Slovene curriculum (for pupils up to seven years of age) does

not explicitly foresee basic components (only drawing of land-

scape characteristics is mentioned), and English curriculum

mentions one activity associated with orientation (use of geo-

graphic vocabulary—north and south). For pupils (aged seven

to eleven) Slovene curricula foresee twelve objectives associ-

ated with the use of basic components of a map (from total of

twenty-two cartographic objectives) and English curriculum

mentions one of a total of ten cartographic objectives. Recom-

mendations related to the methods of implementing the basic

map elements were not detected in the reviewed curricula.

Their implementation is therefore dependent on the teacher, his

knowledge of basic components, and use of additional literature

as well as recommendations and activities that might be stated

in the textbook sets.

Bird perspective is one of the basic elements of cartographic

literacy. Children can understand this intuitively in the pre-

school period if it shows objects, phenomena and spaces famil-

iar to them (Umek, 2001a). In the reviewed curricula there was

no objective that explicitly mentions bird perspective, only the

use of aircraft photograph is mentioned. In the English curricu-

lum this is foreseen for children up to seven years of age, and in

Slovene not before nine years (stated as a basic notion). It

would be reasonable to consider emphasizing aircraft photo-

graphs and introducing them into classes earlier because chil-

dren as young as five to six years can successfully identify

V. HUS, T. HOJNIK

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space or place with the help of aircraft photograph (they can

successfully estimate direction as well, the only problem is

estimating distances) (Blades, Plester, & Spencer, 2003). In one

of her research Umek (2001a) even found that children were

more successful in using aircraft photographs than in using

maps. And it is important that because of the use of photo-

graphs their efficiency in using maps has improved as well.

Orientation is also one of the basic elements of cartographic

literacy. Orientation is closely related to cartography that is

why we would expect to find more of these objectives in the

reviewed curricula.

As with bird perspective children in pre-school period are

good at estimating directions and can use simple maps even if

they are not oriented and they benefit from orientation points

(Acredolo & Bluestein, 1979; Blades & Spencer, 1990). Objec-

tives regarding orientation are explicitly mentioned only in the

Slovene curricula, but only after the age of seven. Yet this is

appropriately and constantly upgraded from grade to grade

(from learning about opportunities of orientation in the envi-

ronment (second grade), to knowing (third grade) and estab-

lishing (fourth grade) cardinal directions with sun, shadow and

compass, from orienteering one selves with various drawings,

charts and maps (fourth grade) to orienteering home landscape,

Slovenia, Europe and world on the map and orienteering with a

map and compass (fifth grade)). English Geography curriculum

mentions orientation only through recommended activity—

through the objective of geographic vocabulary use, pupils

should get to know compass directions (North/South). As men-

tioned, objectives in the English curriculum are written in the

form of reference points that is why implementation and up-

grade of orientation objectives depends on individual schools or

teachers.

Next basic elements of cartographic literacy are cartographic

signs. Although in both countries objectives associated with

cartographic signs are not explicitly mentioned for pupils from

seven years onwards, it should be emphasised that children

remember the symbols even earlier on, if they are of high qual-

ity, concrete (images) and resemble the real world (Kulhavy &

Verdi, 2002). In classes it is reasonable to use maps of larger

scale because here cartographic signs are more noticeable, less

abstract and fewer in number what makes a map easier to read

(Umek, 2001b). One of the cartographic signs is the coordinate

grid. Reviewed curricula mention the use of the grid at about

same age level (from seven to eleven years). Coordinate grid

could be implemented (as it was the case in Slovenia for

Mathematics) into lower grades because pre-school children

can already comprehend an adjusted coordinate grid. This

means that grids should be marked in colour and pictorial signs

and in upper grades with numbers and letters (Blades &

Spencer, 2003). In the Slovene curriculum for Mathematics

(Lipovec, Kmetič, Perat, Prinčič Rohler, Repovž, Senekovič et

al., 2011) the grid is informatively introduced in the first grade,

concretely in third grade, and in “cartography classes” not until

the fourth grade. In England (in Geography and Maths) coordi-

nate grid is foreseen for the children from seven to eleven years

(The National Curriculum for England. Mathematics, 1999).

Whether familiarization of this map component for both sub-

jects is coordinated, of course, depends on the teacher.

Basic cartographic element that is most difficult to execute

and comprehend is the land relief. The majority of pupils can

understand it after the age of fourteen or fifteen. Objectives

associated with land relief (at primary level both in England

and in Slovenia) are mainly tied to notions related with land-

scape characteristics and ways of introducing these characteris-

tics. With an appropriately adjusted land relief these basic car-

tographic elements can also be introduced to lower grades (use

of pictorial signs for land relief) and in higher grades it can be

upgraded with a colour scale and contour lines (e.g. drawing of

contour lines while using a potato) (Umek, 2001b).

Map scale is also one of the map elements that are harder to

understand. Evaluating distances can cause difficulties for chil-

dren as well as for adults (Blades, Plaster, & Spencer, 2003). It

is best to use this concept with an understanding of notions

decreased/increased and then with an understanding and meas-

uring with a graphic scale. Graphic scale is the only explicitly

mentioned objective associated to map scale in Slovene cur-

riculum for Social studies (for fourth grade) that we came

across while reviewing curricula. However there are numerous

disparities regarding age level, when children should under-

stand distances, ratios and scales. Child’s understanding of

scale should be dependent on the mathematical term ratio and

on notion of distances that is why coordination with Mathe-

matics is more than welcome here (Umek, 2001b).

The Contents of the Objectives That Foresee Use,

Reading, Drawing and Interpretation of Maps

In order to develop child’s familiarity with maps entirely, a

child must have an opportunity to use maps, draw, read and

finally interpret them in various contexts. Each program of

teaching and learning must introduce these basic characteristics

individually and at the same time find ways for their integration

(Weeden, 2002).

In the English curriculum for Geography for the first educa-

tional period we have found five objectives associated with the

use, drawing, reading and interpreting of maps of total of eight

cartographic objectives. Meanwhile in the Slovene curriculum

(for the same age period) they are only listed among basic cog-

nitions.

Half of discussed objectives in the Slovene curricula (eleven

of twenty-two cartographic objectives) are foreseen for the age

period of seven to eleven years. It is similar in the second edu-

cational period of the English curriculum where there are more

than half of discussed objectives (seven of ten cartographic

objectives).

Objectives associated with the use of maps or objectives that

“foresee a direct connection of map features and landscape

features” (Weeden, 2002: p. 119), are already foreseen in both

curricula for pupils up to seven years of age (in Slovenia latter

is not stated among objectives but in basic cognitions). Simi-

larly (up to seven years) drawing of maps is foreseen or objec-

tives that “foresee coding of information into cartographic

form” (Weeden, 2002: p. 119), but curricula do not pay them

enough attention. Objectives associated with reading maps or

objectives that “foresee decoding of map elements” (Weeden,

2002: p. 119) are being introduced earlier in England, namely

before the age of seven, and in Slovenia only for pupils from

nine year onwards.

For achieving cartographic literacy development of both re-

ceiving and giving information is essential. In her research

Umek (2003) even found that in order to develop and compre-

hend cartographic literacy it is more efficient to make maps

rather than just read them. Why? While drawing the child oc-

cupies more cognitive channels—graphomotor and visual skills

V. HUS, T. HOJNIK

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(a child draws what he observes), a child is connected to the

real world while drawing, gets to know a map in function, bet-

ter understands basic elements of a map, directly experiences

problems (which sign to use for fruits, how to draw a bench,

etc.) and is more perceptive for various solutions.

While drawing maps pupils use active knowledge and pas-

sive in reading them. Therefore it is reasonable to consider

drawing maps. Children are certainly motivated if classes are

more diverse and intertwined with various methods that cover

different cognitive types and ways of learning (Umek, 2001a).

In the reviewed curricula we did not come across objectives

that would explicitly indicate map interpretation or objectives

that “foresee the ability to connect adopted geographic knowl-

edge with the observed features and map patterns” (Weeden,

2002: p. 119). This is of course understandable because most of

thirteen year olds are at the level of basic reading techniques,

and only at the age of fifteen they can proceed to the abstract

level of working with maps. However younger pupils can also

interpret appropriately adjusted maps to a certain extent (Umek,

2001b).

Teachers’ Autonomy, Teaching Forms,

Methods and Techniques for Teaching Initial

Cartography in the Selected Countries

School is becoming an increasingly autonomous and open

learning environment where teachers have greater responsibility

for content, organization and control of classes and as well as

their professional development (Eurydice, 2008).

In England central school curriculum and standards authority

determine minimal obligatory curriculum, plan learning con-

tents, define attainment targets and determine forms and meth-

ods of knowledge assessment. Schools and teachers, as a rule,

cannot change these decisions but individual schools are re-

sponsible for supplementation of contents (Eurydice, 2008).

English curricula are an example of open curricula that allow

schools and teachers a high level of autonomy and are ideal for

creative teachers that search for innovative ways to reach ob-

jectives and find appropriate modern ways of teaching for

themselves and pupils (Zupančič, 2008).

In Slovenia the program and curricula for primary school

subjects is adopted by the Council of Experts of the Republic of

Slovenia for General education. In the school year of 2011/

2012 reformed curricula came into force in Slovenia and in

many segments became more open. Curricula include general

and operational objectives and contents, knowledge standards

and didactic recommendations (from the field of achieving

course objectives, individualisation and differentiation, cross-

curricular connections and knowledge verification and evalua-

tion). Detailed subject content is described in textbook sets

which teachers choose from the list of preapproved textbooks

(Eurydice, 2008).

Despite the reform, Slovene curricula, in comparison to the

English ones, have a more detailed structure; they are more

detailed in determining content, objectives and basic cognitions

and so they guide the teacher through classes and help them

with establishing the essence of the profession.

However despite the noted differences among the curricula

teachers in England and Slovenia have a high level of auton-

omy in choosing teaching methods, forms and techniques.

These are written rather in general, as some kind of recom-

mendation, and similarly state:

 The use of various active and modern teaching methods and

forms of work which gives pupils greater motivation and

concentration during classes.

 Skilful planning of methods and work forms, adjusted to

developmental characteristics of the pupils in a way that all

can entirely and efficiently participate in classes (children

with special needs).

 Active learning and researching of immediate surroundings

with the teaching method of fieldwork.

 Promotion of the information-communication technology

(ICT) use.

Didactic Recommendations and Additional Help

for the Teachers of Cartographic Literacy

Despite of Slovene curricula reform, cartographic literacy in

the first triad is given too little attention as well as on the con-

tent level as on didactic recommendations level. On the con-

trary the recommendations in the Social studies curriculum

(second triad) prove that the authors have paid much more at-

tention to cartographic literacy. They have covered all the crite-

ria that we have analysed in this article (i.e. instructions for

reading and drawing maps, basic components of cartographic

literacy, broadening of spatial orientation, basic teaching me-

thod—fieldwork, use of pictorial material, comparison of the

latter with maps, simplification of over exacting maps, etc.).

With appropriate adjustment all of the above could be imple-

mented in lower grades as well.

In the English Geography curricula there were no didactic

recommendations directly associated with cartographic literacy.

Understanding of maps is mentioned in general, as well as

use of ICT, meaning of real problem use and with that the de-

velopment of pupil’s research skills for solving these problems

as well as inside as outside of classroom.

We can conclude that in Slovenia Social studies curriculum

(in comprehending cartographic literacy) is of great help to the

teachers and that in Slovene curricula there is a greater empha-

sis to the cartographic literacy despite of late implementation to

classes.

While reviewing literature we came across some suggestions

for teaching cartography:

 Activities associated with maps, “real” tasks and authentic

instructions are a promising way of teaching exacting skills.

Such knowledge has a personal note, places itself in the

long-term memory and is generally not forgotten (Kulhavy

& Verdi, 2002).

 Maps in textbook sets represent either primary message of

substantiation of information, can entirely replace text, but

often they are only a visual decoration (Umek, 2001a). If a

map is designed with an intention and is properly used in

classroom, then it can serve as a tool that facilitates learning

and enables acquirement of meaningful and relevant infor-

mation during the learning process (Kulhavy & Verdi,

2002).

 Children’s literature sparks the imagination of children and

inspires meaningful teaching. With listening or reading sto-

ries children can explore geography through literature. Use

of children’s literature as a source of teaching basic geo-

graphic notions enables children an understanding of geog-

raphy that is composed of real people, places and occur-

V. HUS, T. HOJNIK

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rences (Lin, Vasilijev, & Zeitler Hannibal, 2002).

 Teacher’s knowledge of ICT is important because propor-

tionally with his ability to use this technology the use of

ICT activities and their inclusion into classes increases

(Umek, 2001a).

We can conclude that teachers should use appropriately ad-

justed maps for classes. It would be of great help if they were

already appropriately adjusted in the textbook sets. It frequently

occurs that maps in textbooks, workbooks and atlases are too

exacting and as such perhaps tedious to pupils. Latter can be

eliminated with the appropriate adjustment of basic carto-

graphic elements, with combinations of maps and various pic-

ture materials, with intertwining of drawing and reading maps,

with consistent use of charts (precise titles, presence and com-

bination of various scales, map legend, date and source of data),

with various presentations of number of layers of data, etc.

Conclusion

English curriculum is an example of an open curriculum that

provides guidelines, global objectives, and core content and

broadly sets basic cognitions at the end of individual educa-

tional period. As such it certainly does not pay much attention

to objectives or to didactic recommendations for the carto-

graphic literacy. In England the introduction and upgrade of

cartography and appropriate cross-curricular connection greatly

depends on individual schools or teachers. Slovene curriculum

has a more detailed structure as the English one and as such

pays much more attention to the cartographic literacy, but it

introduces it (too) late. With appropriate adjustment certain

objectives could be introduced in earlier classes and the intro-

duction of certain content could be more adjusted with other

subjects.

The quality of teaching is the most important factor in raising

the educational level and realizing Lisbon objectives. That is

why many European countries have increased professional

autonomy of the teachers and enabled them a more flexible

fulfilment of increasing number of work obligations (Eurydice,

2008). More open a curriculum is, greater autonomy it provides

for the teachers at the level of content, level of difficulty

(deepening of content), work forms and in didactic approaches

of learning and teaching. But with increase of teacher’s auton-

omy his level of professional qualification for a responsible

planning and implementing of educational work should also

“grow”. This also places greater responsibility to the educa-

tional system at Faculties of Education and additional profes-

sional training of teachers.

Whether teachers at primary level are aware of the impor-

tance of cartographic literacy as a part of functional literacy and

whether they are appropriately trained for this kind of literacy is

certainly a question of further research.

Teacher with lack of appropriate knowledge on cartographic

literacy in combination with an open curriculum pays far less

attention to this topic during classes.

That is why teacher training and paying attention to carto-

graphic literacy either in curricula or in textbook sets is of great

impotence and therefore slightly concretely sets objectives and

slightly more guided teachers are very important for carto-

graphic literacy.

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