Radiological Hazards for Marble and Granite Used at Shak El Thouban Industrial Zone in Egypt

doi:10.4236/jep.2013.412A1005

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Journal of Environmental Protection, 2013, 4, 41-48

Published Online December 2013 (http://www.scirp.org/journal/jep)

http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jep.2013.412A1005

Open Access JEP

Radiological Hazards for Marble and Granite Used at

Shak El Thouban Industrial Zone in Egypt

Amany T. Sroor1, Saher M. Darwish2*, Samia M. El-Bahi1, Mohamed G. Abdel Karim2

1Nuclear Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Girls, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt; 2Physics Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo

University, Giza, Egypt.

Email: *[email protected]

Received October 1st, 2013; revised October 31st, 2013; accepted November 28th, 2013

which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. In accor-

ABSTRACT

The background level of radiation in the natural environment surrounds us at all times. Levels of natural occurring ra-

dioactivity in marble and granite used at Shak El Thouban industrial zone in Cairo, Egypt have been investigated using

HPGe detector through gamma-ray spectrometry. The activity concentration of radionuclides in the 238U-, 232Th-series

and 40K has been determined. The average activity concentration of 238U, 232Th and 40K for marble samples was 23.77

Bq/kg ranged from (10.91 to 45.4), 10.75 Bq/kg ranged from (5.46 to 23.61) and 520.43 Bq/kg ranged from (382.30 to

1132.41), respectively. The 238 U, 232Th and 40K activity concentration for granite samples were 54.31 Bq/kg ranged

from (12.04 to 106.34), 113.57 Bq/kg ranged from (23.91 to 270.36) and 7867.51 Bq/kg ranged from (2017.60 to

11436.91), respectively. Concerning the radiological risk, the radium equivalent activity, external and internal radiation

hazard indices, the radiation level index and absorbed dose rate were evaluated. The mass exhalation rates of 222Rn and

emanation coefficient have been also calculated. The mass exhalation rate of radon was found to be from 14.86 to

137.13 and 16.48 to 155.26 µBq/kg·s for marble and granite samples, respectively. The mean values of the specific ac-

tivity of 226Ra, activity of 238U before and after sealing time and the mass exhalation rate of radon for granite samples

are twice that for marble samples. All radiological indices and the mass exhalation rate of radon are lower than the per-

missible levels for building material in all marble samples, while all granite samples are higher and unsafe and pose a

risk to the workers and users of these products due to the emanation of radon that may accumulate by time, especially in

closed spaces.

Keywords: Radiological Hazards; Marble; Granite; HPGe Detector; Shak El Thouban

1. Introduction

Since the Earth formed and life developed, background

radiation has been our constant companion. Primordial

radionuclides are found around the globe in igneous and

sedimentary rock. These radionuclides migrate from

rocks into soil, water, and even air. Human activities

such as uranium mining have also redistributed these

radionuclides. Primordial radionuclides include the series

of radionuclides produced when uranium and thorium

decay, as well as potassium-40. Usually much attention

is paid to 226Ra due to 222Rn exhalation and the subse-

quent internal exposure that a person constantly inhales.

The specific activities of 238U, 232Th and 40K in building

raw materials (such as cement, brick, concrete, soil, mar-

ble, granite, sand, etc.) mainly depend on their geological

sites of origin and their geochemical characteristics.

Therefore, knowledge of radiation levels and basic ra-

diological parameters in building materials is essential to

assess possible risks to human health.

Over the past decade, a number of studies have been

reported on the activity concentrations of natural ra-

dionuclides for marble and granite samples obtained

from different countries in the world [1-7].

As a result of its geological location, Egypt possesses

very rich natural stone (mainly marble and granite) re-

serves in various colors and patterns [8]. Natural stone

has become the standard material used for many luxu-

rious homes and high price apartments. Marble and gra-

*Corresponding author.

Radiological Hazards for Marble and Granite Used at Shak El Thouban Industrial Zone in Egypt

nite are used for cooking work places, bathrooms, en-

trance halls and living rooms. Accordingly there is a

good demand for tiles, especially marble for interior

flooring owing to its aesthetic features, whereas granite is

chiefly used for exterior cladding and in the funerary art

[9,10].

The area of Shak El Thouban in Katameyya has be-

come a conglomeration of around 400 factories consti-

tuting 60% to 70% of marble and granite factories in

Egypt working in the marble and granite industry. More

than two thousand workshops for complementary indus-

tries employ about 25 thousand workers other than 30

thousand workers indirect employment. Problems in

these regions are outbreak of a group of diseases (e.g.:

tinea, intestinal colic and chest disease) among workers

in Shak El Thouban as a result of drinking water and

food contamination. Marble and granite industry has

stone waste in generally a highly polluting waste due to

both its highly alkaline nature and its manufacturing and

processing techniques, which impose a health threat to

the surroundings. Shak El Thouban industrial cluster in

Egypt is imposing an alarm threat to the surrounding

communities, the new Maadi, Zahraa Elmaadi, residen-

tial area, and the ecology of the neighboring Wadi Degla

protectorate.

The present study aims to determine the activity con-

centration of 238 U, 232Th and 40K of twenty six marble

and granite samples wide locally used at Shak El Thou-

ban industrial zone in Egypt, using HPGe detector in a

low background configuration. The results are used to

assess the potential radiological hazards associated with

these materials by computing the radium equivalent ac-

tivity, radiation hazard indices and absorbed dose rate.

The radon mass exhalation rate and the emanation coef-

ficient were also determined and evaluated for all exam-

ined samples.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Sampling and Sample Preparation

The area of Shak El Thouban industrial zone in Kata-

meyya, Egypt has become a conglomeration of factories

working in the marble and granite industries. Twenty six

different types of marble, granite samples (nineteen sam-

ples of marble coded M1 to M19, seven samples of gran-

ite coded G20 to G26) were collected from different fac-

tories at Shak El Thouban industrial zone (Tables 1 and

2, respectively).

Table 1. Average activity concentrations of 238U, 232Th and 40K for nineteen different marble samples used in Shak El Thou-

ban, Egypt.

Sample Commercial name (Origin) 238U Bq/kg 232Th Bq/kg 40K Bq/kg

M1 Prashia (El-Aish, Egypt) 14.63 9.41 453.89

M2 Zafarana (Zafarana, Egypt) 27.51 9.03 431.34

M3 Serpagenty (El-Arish, Egypt) 21.22 8.33 525.85

M4 Sinai (RasGharbe, Egypt) 30.47 9.42 534.46

M5 Triesta (South Sinai, Egypt) 11.09 5.46 602.64

M6 Galala (Suez, Egypt) 17.97 10.45 532.77

M7 Golden Yellow (Egypt) 15.04 6.88 478.13

M8 Galala Extra (Suez, Egypt) 23.84 7.71 515.05

M9 Golden Beach (Egypt) 15.76 8.54 692.08

M10 Red marble (Turkey) 13.04 8.46 449.70

M11 Emperador (Spain) 79.44 23.61 568.56

M12 PerlatoSvevo (Italy) 10.91 11.13 435.43

M13 Weight marble (Turkey) 18.08 10.08 435.79

M14 Rosa (India) 16.82 11.01 1132.41

M15 Emperador (Lebanon) 18.06 8.87 394.51

M16 Crema (Turkey) 15.78 8.20 463.05

M17 Green marble (India) 19.42 11.51 400.57

M18 Emperador (Syria) 45.40 19.61 382.30

M19 Emperador Brown (China) 37.23 16.63 459.69

Mean 23.77 10.75 520.43

P. L. 50 50 500

P. L.: Permissible level.

Open Access JEP

Radiological Hazards for Marble and Granite Used at Shak El Thouban Industrial Zone in Egypt 43

Table 2. Average activity concentrations of 238U, 232Th and 40K for seven different granite samples used in Shak El Thouban,

Egypt.

Sample Commercial name (Origin) 238U Bq/kg 232Th Bq/kg 40K Bq/kg

G20 Ghandola (Aswan, Egypt) 106.34 142.73 9175.02

G21 Red Granite (Aswan, Egypt) 40.45 108.14 11436.91

G22 Red Gharda (Ghardaqah, Egypt) 91.35 270.36 10820.41

G23 Black Aswan (Aswan, Egypt) 12.04 23.91 2017.60

G24 Ghazal Dark (Aswan, Egypt) 38.70 129.13 9734.34

G25 Tan Brown Granite (India) 58.72 82.70 8447.16

G26 Black Granite (India) 32.56 37.99 3441.16

Mean 54.31 113.57 7867.51

P. L. 50 50 500

P. L.: Permissible level.

The samples were crushed, dried and sieved through

200 mesh size. Weighted samples were placed in poly-

ethylene bottles of 250 cm3 volume. The bottles were

completely sealed for more than one month to allow ra-

dioactive equilibrium to be reached between 238U and

232Th and their corresponding daughters to be measured

by gamma spectrometry. This step was necessary to en-

sure that radon gas is confined within the volume and the

daughters will also remain in the sample.

2.2. Experimental Method for Gamma

Spectroscopy

The detection system consists of an ORTEC hyper pure

germanium (HPGe) detector of sensitive volume of 76.11

cm3, preamplifier, spectroscopy amplifier, high voltage

power supply and the multichannel analyzer. The HPGe

detector has a full width at half maximum of 0.9 keV at

the 122 keV gamma transition of 57Co and 1.85 keV at

1332.5 keV of 60Co gamma transition with photopeak

efficiency 30%. To reduce the gamma-ray background, a

cylindrical lead shield with a fixed bottom and a movable

cover shielded the detector. The lead shield contained

two inner concentric cylinders of copper and cadmium to

prevent interference X-rays by lead. The energy calibra-

tion of the HPGe spectrometer was carried out by using

standard point sources (60Co, 133Ba, 137Cs, 226Ra and

241Am). Absolute efficiency calibration curves are calcu-

lated for activity determination of the sample by using

standard 238U and 232Th with activities of 2120.37 and

1333.96 Bq, respectively and potassium chloride KCl

solutions with activity 15.9 Bq [11], contained in the

same cylindrical bottles with the same volume 250 cm3

and having the same nature as the investigated samples.

The standards and the samples were prepared with a uni-

form geometry. In order to determine the background

distribution in the environment around the detector, an

empty bottle was counted in the same manner and ge-

ometry as the samples. The background spectra were

used to correct the areas of gamma rays for measured

isotopes. The quality assurance of the measurements was

carried out by a daily energy and efficiency calibrations

and repeating each sample measurements. Each sample

was analyzed for a time of 70,000 seconds to obtain the

gamma-ray spectrum with good statistics. The gamma

emitting radionuclide specifically recorded was 238U,

226Ra, 232Th and 40K.

The 238U radionuclide was estimated from the 351.9

keV (36.7%) and 295.2 keV (13.3%) gamma peaks of

214Pb and 609.3 keV (46.1%), 1120.3 keV (15%), and

1764 keV (15.9%) gamma peaks of 214Bi. 232Th radionu-

clide was estimated from the 338.6 keV (11.27%) and

911.1 keV (29%) gamma peaks of 228Ac and 583.1 keV

(84.5%) and 2614.7 keV (9.9%) gamma peaks of 208Tl.

The 226Ra concentration was measured from its gamma-

ray peak at 186.1 keV. 40K radionuclide was estimated

using 1460.8 keV (10.7%) gamma peak from 40K itself

to determine the concentration of 40K in different sam-

ples.

3. Results and Discussion

Activity concentrations (in Bq/kg) of naturally occurring

radionuclides isotopes reported in each of the 238U-series

and 232Th-series in the marble and granite used at Shak El

Thouban industrial zone in Egypt have been determined.

The activity concentration values of 226Ra, 214Bi and

214Pb for 238U were found to be 17.99 to 163.58 Bq/kg,

10.54 to 73.13 Bq/kg and 3.96 to 82.31 Bq/kg, respec-

tively. Similarly for 232Th the activity concentration val-

ues of 228Ac were varied from 8.87 to 96.68 Bq/kg and

208Tl were varied from 4.56 to 84.01 Bq/kg.

The average activity concentrations in marble samples

were found to be 23.77 Bq/kg ranged from10.91 to 45.40

Bq/kg for 238U, 10.75 Bq/kg ranged from 5.46 to 23.61

Bq/kg for 232Th and 520.43 Bq/kg ranged from 382.30 to

Open Access JEP

Radiological Hazards for Marble and Granite Used at Shak El Thouban Industrial Zone in Egypt

1132.41 Bq/kg for 40K, as reported in Table 1. The activ-

ity concentrations in granite samples were varied from

12.04 to 106.340 Bq/kg with a mean value 55.31 Bq/kg

for 238U, 23.91 to 270.36 Bq/kg with a mean value

113.57 Bq/kg for 232Th and 2017.60 to 11436.91 Bq/kg

with a mean value 7867.51 Bq/kg for 40K, as reported in

Table 2. It is clear that the activity concentrations of 238U,

232Th and 40K in marble samples are within the permissi-

ble levels 50, 50 and 500 Bq/kg [12], while that in gran-

ite samples are higher than the permissible levels.

Studies were performed between the combinations of

radionuclides like 238U and 226Ra as well as 238U and

232Th activity concentrations. Figure 1 represents the

relation between (238U, 226Ra) as well as (238U, 232Th)

activities for marble and granite samples under investiga-

tion. Strong correlations were observed between (238U

and 226Ra) with (R2 = 0.95, N =19) for marble samples

and with (R2 = 0.995, N = 7) for granite samples which

clear the radioactive equilibrium in uranium series. Simi-

larly, moderate correlation were also observed between

(238U and 232Th) with (R2 = 0.78, N =19) for marble sam-

ples and with (R2 = 0.57, N = 7) for granite samples due

to the high activity concentration of 238U than 232Th.

Assessment of radiological hazards was made by cal-

culating the radium equivalent activities, external and

internal hazard indices. The radium equivalent activity

(Raeq) is a weighted sum of activities of the 226Ra, 232Th

and 40K based on the assumption that 370 Bq/kg of Ra,

259 Bq/kg of Th and 4810 Bq/kg of K produce the same

gamma-ray dose rates as given by the following equation

[13]:





eq RaThK

RaA143A0 077A

The results obtained for the radium equivalent activity

index Raeq of all samples of marble and granite are varied

from 59.77 to 156.89 Bq/kg and from 201.58 to 1311.14

= 19

= 0.95

0 20 4060 80 100

238

U (Bq/kg)

120

150

226

Ra (Bq/kg)

Correlation between

238

U and

226

Ra formarble

samples

N = 19

= 0.78

0153045 60 75

238

U (Bq/kg)

232

Th (Bq/kg)

Correlation between

238

U and

232

Thfor marble

samples

N = 7

= 0.995

0 20 40 60 80 100

238

U (Bq/kg)

120

150

226

Ra (Bq/kg)

Correlation between

238

U and

226

Ra for granite

samples

120

180

N = 7

= 0.57

03060 90

238

U (Bq/kg)

120

232

Th (Bq/kg)

Correlation between

238

U and

232

Th for granite

samples

120

180

240

300

Figure 1. Correlation between (238U, 226Ra) and (238U, 232Th) concentrations for samples under investigation.

Open Access JEP

Radiological Hazards for Marble and Granite Used at Shak El Thouban Industrial Zone in Egypt 45

Bq/kg respectively as listed in Table 3. It is observed

that the values of radium equivalent index of all marble

samples and black granite samples (G23 and G26) are

lower than the recommended value 370 Bq/kg [14] while

the other granite samples are higher than the recom-

mended value.

The other factors indicating radiological hazards are

external (Hex) and internal (Hin) hazard indices which

measure the radiation exposure due to the radioactivity

and defined by the following equations [15,16]:



ex RaThK

HA370A259A4810



int RaThk

HA185 A259 A4810

ARa, ATh, and AK are the activity concentration (in

Bq/kg) of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K, respectively. In order to

keep the radiation hazards to be insignificant, the value

of Hex and Hint must be less than unity [17,18].

The external and internal hazard indices of marble

samples are varied from 0.16 to 0.42 and 0.19 to 0.64

mGy/yr, respectively and that of granite samples are var-

ied from 0.54 to 3.54 and 0.58 to 3.79 mGy/yr, respec-

tively as listed in Table 3. It is noticed that external and

internal hazards indices are lower than unity for all mar-

ble and black granite samples (G23 and G26) while the

other granite samples are higher than unity.

To estimate the level of γ-radiation hazard associated

Table 3. The values of radium equivalent, external and internal hazard indices, radioactivity level index and dose rate for

marble and granite samples under investigation.

Sample Raeq Bq/kg Hex mGy/y Hin mGy/y Iγ Dose rate nGy/h

M1 63.03 0.17 0.21 0.50 31.99

M2 73.64 0.20 0.27 0.56 36.27

M3 73.62 0.20 0.26 0.58 37.18

M4 85.10 0.23 0.31 0.66 42.23

M5 65.30 0.18 0.21 0.53 34.26

M6 73.94 0.20 0.25 0.58 37.50

M7 61.69 0.17 0.21 0.49 31.54

M8 74.52 0.20 0.27 0.58 37.43

M9 81.26 0.22 0.26 0.65 42.14

M10 59.77 0.16 0.20 0.47 30.51

M11 156.98 0.42 0.64 1.05 74.00

M12 60.36 0.16 0.19 0.48 30.75

M13 66.04 0.18 0.23 0.51 33.13

M14 119.76 0.32 0.37 0.98 63.16

M15 61.12 0.17 0.21 0.47 30.55

M16 63.16 0.17 0.21 0.50 32.08

M17 66.72 0.18 0.23 0.51 33.13

M18 102.88 0.28 0.40 0.76 48.81

M19 96.41 0.26 0.36 0.72 46.68

G20 1016.92 2.75 3.03 8.29 534.42

G21 1075.74 2.90 3.01 9.02 580.65

G22 1311.14 3.54 3.79 10.57 683.26

G23 201.58 0.54 0.58 1.67 107.72

G24 972.90 2.63 2.73 8.07 520.59

G25 827.41 2.23 2.39 6.88 443.05

G26 351.85 0.95 1.04 2.90 187.02

P. L. 370 < 1 < 1 < 1 55

. L.: Permissible level.

Open Access JEP

Radiological Hazards for Marble and Granite Used at Shak El Thouban Industrial Zone in Egypt

with the natural radionuclides another radiation level

index suggested by OECD’s NEA [19] are evaluated

using the following equation:



γRa Th k

IA150 A100 A1500

ARa, ATh, and AK are the activity concentration (in Bq/

kg) of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K, respectively. The radiation

level index Iγ of marble and granite samples are varied

from 0.47 to 1.05 and from 1.67 to 10.57, respectively

which is found to be less than unity for all marble sam-

ples and higher than unity for all granite samples, as

listed in Table 3.

The absorbed dose rate in air express the received dose

in the open air from the radiation emitted from radionu-

clides activity concentrations in the environmental mate-

rials. This factor is important quantity to assess when

considering radiation risk to a bio system. The absorbed

dose rate, D (nGy/h) in air at 1m above the ground level

owing to the concentration of 238U, 232Th and 40K [15,20]

is given by:

...

UThK

D0 4299A0666A0 042A

ARa, ATh, and AK are the activity concentration (in

Bq/kg) of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K, respectively.

The absorbed dose rate for samples under investigation

varied from 30.51 to 74.00 with mean value 39.65 nGy/h

for marble and from 107.72 to 683.26 with mean value

436.67 nGy/h for granite, as presented in Table 3. It is

clear that its values are lower than the recommended

value 55 nGy/h for all marble samples except marble

sample M11 and all granite samples.

The mass exhalation rate (ERn) and emanation rate co-

efficient of radon (CRn) that can diffuse through the raw

and building materials is also a very important radio-

logical index used to evaluate the amount of the 222Rn

emanation fraction released from the building raw mate-

rials and products containing naturally occurring ra-

dionuclides such as 222Rn in radioactive equilibrium with

its parent. The emanation coefficient of radon (CRn) was

determined [21] according to:







Rn 0

CCCC

C0 and C are the net count rate of radon at the sealing

time of the samples and after equilibrium (after 30 days),

respectively.

The mass exhalation rate of radon is the product of the

emanation coefficient of radon (ERa) and production rate

of radon [21]. The mass exhalation rate (ERn in Bq/kg·s)

is determined using the following equation:



RnRnRa Rn

ECAλ

ARa is the specific activity of 226Ra (in Bq/kg) and λRn

is the decay constant of 222Rn (λRn = 2.1 × 10−6 s−1).

The mean value of the emanation coefficient CRn and

the 222Rn mass exhalation rate ERn of the samples under

investigation are listed in Table 4. It is clear that the

values of the emanation coefficient and the 222Rn exhale-

tion rate for all samples under investigation were ranged

Table 4. The specific activity of 226Ra, activity of 238U before and after sealing time, the emanation coefficient and the radon

mass exhalation rate for marble and granite samples under investigation.

Sample Specific activity

of 226Ra (Bq/kg)

238U-series (Bq/kg)

before C0

238U-series

(Bq/kg) after C

Emanation coefficient

of Radon CRn

Mass exhalation rate

for 222Rn (µBq/kg·s)

M1 25.00 18.50 14.63 0.44 23.18

M2 44.80 35.50 27.51 0.44 41.08

M3 35.08 33.50 21.22 0.39 28.57

M4 26.70 42.51 30.47 0.42 23.41

M5 17.60 16.49 11.09 0.40 14.86

M6 29.98 22.12 17.97 0.45 28.22

M7 24.73 19.52 15.04 0.44 22.60

M8 36.82 33.79 23.84 0.41 31.98

M9 25.22 19.52 15.76 0.45 23.66

M10 22.26 18.69 13.05 0.41 19.22

M11 120.03 66.58 79.44 0.54 137.13

M12 17.99 15.21 10.91 0.42 15.78

M13 33.91 23.51 18.08 0.43 30.95

M14 28.53 20.81 16.82 0.45 26.78

M15 29.03 23.31 18.06 0.44 26.61

M16 23.11 19.52 15.78 0.45 21.70

M17 33.79 24.41 19.41 0.44 31.44

M18 66.01 52.45 45.39 0.46 64.31

M19 57.73 45.01 37.23 0.45 54.89

G20 163.58 128.93 106.34 0.45 155.26

G21 56.90 54.38 40.45 0.43 50.97

G22 135.34 101.70 91.35 0.47 134.49

G23 19.33 17.61 12.04 0.41 16.49

G24 63.95 53.73 38.69 0.42 56.22

G25 92.95 62.23 58.72 0.49 94.76

G26 51.06 48.71 32.56 0.40 42.96

Open Access JEP

Radiological Hazards for Marble and Granite Used at Shak El Thouban Industrial Zone in Egypt 47

from 0.39 to 0.54 and 14.86 to 155.26 μBq/(kg·s), re-

spectively. The mass exhalation rate of 222Rn in marble

and granite were varied from 14.86 to 137.13 and 16.48

to 155.26 µBq/kg·s, respectively.

Figure 2 shows a strong correlation between the spe-

cific activity of 226Ra and 222Rn mass exhalation rate with

(R2 = 0.986, N = 26) for marble and granite samples,

which means that 222Rn and 226Ra accompanied each

other and that the individual result for any one of the

radionuclide concentration is a good predictor of the

concentration of the other.

4. Conclusions

Environmental monitoring should be carried out for mar-

bles and granites used at Shak El Thouban industrial

zone in Katameyya, Egypt where people might be ex-

posed to radioactivity. The levels of natural radioactivity

in marble and granite samples were determined using

high resolution gamma-ray spectrometry. The results can

be useful in the assessment of the radiological hazard

associated with the exposures and the radiation doses due

to naturally radioactive element contents in marble and

granite samples. We noticed that there is a strong corre-

lation between radium-226 and uranium-238 in marbel

and granite samples which means that the two elements

accompanied each other. Also, there is a strong correlation

between the specific activity of radium and radon mass

exhalation rate, so the knowledge of uranium concentra-

tions gives a good estimate of the radon concentrations in

the samples and its escape to the atmosphere.

The present study showed that the measured marble

samples were within the recommended safety limits and

did not pose any significant source of radiation hazard

inhabitants. It is also clear that, the high activity concen-

tration, radioactive level and mass exhalation rate of the

radon within most granite samples pose a radiation haz-

ard to the workers and users of the this product and cause

a great effect on the humans health, especially those

working in closed spaces since the emanated radon may

R2 = 0.986

N = 26

0 20 40 60 80100 120 140 160180

Specific activity of 226Ra (Bq/kg)

120

150

180

Mass exhalation rate for 222Rn

(μBp/kg.s)

Figure 2. Mass exhalation rate for 222Rn verses specific ac-

tivity of 226Ra for all samples under investigation.

be accumulated by time. Therefore, safety rules and pre-

cautions should be necessary for workers and users of

granite types, especially in closed spaces.

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