Stephen Biko’s Philosophy and Its Pedagogical Implications in South Africa

doi:10.4236/ce.2013.48071

Paper Menu >>

Journal Menu >>

Creative Education

2013. Vol.4, No.8, 492-496

Published Online August 2013 in SciRes (http://www.scirp.org/journal/ce) http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ce.2013.48071

492

Stephen Biko’s Philosophy and Its Pedagogical Implications in

South Africa

Vuyisile Msila

Department of Educati on Leadership and Management, College of Education , University of South Africa,

Pretoria, South Africa

Email: [email protected]

Received May 30th, 2013; revised June 30th, 2013; accepted July 7th, 2013

bution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the

original work is properly cited.

There are many approaches that need to inform education systems around the world. It also matters to

know whether policymakers have followed (for example), a socialist or an individualist approach in for-

mulating an education system. Furthermore, teachers and other role-players need to understand the para-

digm that undergirds their system of education. This article focuses on the ideas of Stephen Biko, a South

African political activist whose ideas proliferated in the 1970s. The article shows that certain values are

crucial in building education founded on sound social justice policies. Most importantly, it displays that

education is never a neutral act and that it will always be influenced by political debates and philosophies

in a country.

Keywords: Fundamental Pedagogics; Liberatory Education; Political Ideals; Social Justice; Values

Introduction

Bantu Stephen Biko became known around the world after

his death at the hands of the apartheid police in 1977. He was

the Black Consciousness (BC) leader who stood for human

rights of the oppressed Black people in South Africa. The BC

that Biko stood for was defined as “an inward-looking process

to infuse people with pride and dignity” (Wilson, 2012: p. 14).

There are critics who argue that among others, Biko was in-

spired by the Black Power movement in America as well as

philosophers such as Frantz Fanon and Paulo Freire. Carmi-

chael and Hamilton (1967) defined the role of the Black Power

movement as a means of encouraging a new consciousness

among Black people which would make it possible for them to

proceed in the struggle for human rights. Wilson (2012: p. 14)

also postulates as she writes about Biko:

Young as he was, he realized that a new psychological

climate had to be created if the liberation of his country

was to come about. He expressed what he saw as bitter the

truth. Of prime importance was “to awaken the people as

to who they are by getting them to state their identity. He

thought that if you could do that, then there was no stop-

ping them from revolution,” explained his colleague Ma-

lusi Mpumlwana.

Biko’s philosophy emphasized a number of aspects as high-

lighted above. Among these were African humanism, affirma-

tion of Black identity; the psychological emancipation. His

philosophy underscored the idea of Black people living in

apartheid South Africa to be able to free themselves from phy-

sical and mental bondage. This article explores the implications

of Biko’s philosophy in education. Although Stephen Biko died

in 1977 after being tortured by apartheid police, his ideas lived

long after him. Arguably, some critics still maintain that they

are still relevant in today’s post-apartheid South Africa. Using

the findings I gathered from an earlier study (Msila, 2012) on

his biographical movie, Cry Freedom, in this article I specifi-

cally look at the pedagogical implications of his philosophy. I

do this by firstly exploring the ideas of Fanon and the Black

Power movement; exploring how these might have inspired

Biko. Then the article focuses on three aspects and how they

can be informed by Biko’s philosophy. These three are African

humanism; identity and culture as well as education and lan-

guages.

Objectives of the Study

This article, as it explores the pedagogical implications of

Biko’s philosophy also seeks to:

 explore existing research on Biko’s philosophy and its im-

plications on education;

 examine how this philosophy is linked to other similar phi-

losophies; and

 investigate the extent in which politics can affect or impact

on education.

Theory: Fanon and Black Power

Gibson (2011, p. 1) points out that, “Perhaps the most impor-

tant recreation of Fanon’s philosophy of liberation on the Afri-

can continent was by Steve Biko, whose emphasis on the lib-

eration of the ‘mind’ of the oppressed became essential to the

new stage of revolt against apartheid in the 1970s”. Fanon

talked about the importance of freeing the mind of the colo-

nized. He stressed the importance of the African mind to shed

itself of colonial domination. Fanon was a revolutionary writer

V. MSILA

who espoused the conditions of the oppressed. These people,

“the damned of the earth” need to constantly fight exploitation

and hunger as people try to change their lives (Fanon, 1967).

In his book, Black Skins, White Masks (1967) Fanon expli-

cates the sense of dependency, helplessness and inadequacy

that Black Africans experience in a “White world”. Fanon, a

qualified psychiatrist, uses psychoanalysis to explain the Black

behavior after the loss of culture. Amongst others, Fanon raises

an argument that it is because of language that people in former

colonized states experience marginalization, pathologization

and servitude. He says that language is an index of power im-

balance and cultural difference. Furthermore, Fanon (2001) states

that colonialism not only physically disarms the colonized sub-

ject, but it also rob her of a pre-colonial cultural heritage. Lan-

guage, like culture negatively transformed the colonized to as-

sume an iden tity of being The Other. As traditional culture dis-

sipated among the indigenes, the creation of otherness seeped

through. Black Africans became poorer and poorer and regard-

ed the colonizer as the provider. There developed a schism be-

tween the Black A frican and the Westerner:

The creation of otherness (also called othering) consists of

applying a principle that allows individuals to be classi-

fied into two hierarchical groups: them and us. The out-

group is only coherent as a group as a result of its opposi-

tion to the in-group and its lack of identity. This lack is

based on stereotypes that are largely stigmatizing and ob-

viously simplistic. The in-group constructs one or more

others, setting itself apart and giving itself an identity

(Staszak, 2008: p. 2).

The politics of colonialism and racism further entrenched this

otherness. The Black African was marginalized by the domi-

nant White society .

Similar to this philosophy is the philosophy of the Black

Power movement. In fact, Joseph (2003) refers to Fanon as a

man who was viewed as a future icon of the Black Power

movement in its early stages. The Black Power movement in

America espoused the politics of liberation of the Black people.

Like Fanon above, Carmichael and Hamilton (1967) postulate

that Black people needed to redefine themselves. These authors

also point out that the fundamental need for Black people was

to reclaim their history and identity from what they referred to

as cultural terrorism. Furthermore, Carmichael and Hamilton

(1967: p. 44) aver:

The concept of Black Power speaks to all the needs men-

tioned in this chapter. It is a call for Black people in this

country to unite, to recognize their heritage, to build a

sense of community. It is a call for Black people to begin

to define their own goals, to lead their own organizations

and to support these organizations. It is a call to reject the

racist institutions and values of this society.

The above clearly illustrates the envisaged propinquity be-

tween Black Power movement and Fanon’s philosophy. Both

philosophies support the call for the oppressed to fight for their

rights. The goal of both is the liberation of the marginalized and

oppressed people. The Black Power movement emphasized ra-

cial pride and political self-determination (Joseph, 2009). Fur-

thermore, Joseph argues that it called for a redefined Black

identity that connected Black Americans to a national and

global political project based on solidarity and a shared history

of racial oppression. “The Black Power movement, in its chal-

lenge of postwar racial liberalism, fundamentally transformed

struggles for racial justice through an uncompromising quest

for social, political, cultural, and economic transformation” (Jo-

seph, 2009: p. 753). Black Power expressed a concept that ne-

gated racial oppression and it advanced a self-sufficient econ-

omy.

The Black Power movement also instilled a sense of pride

among the oppressed. Children were taught to love their black-

ness (Van DeBurg, 1992). Later the Black Power movement

produced cultural products that imbued pride in blackness.

Thus it used all available forms of folk, literary and dramatic

expression based in a common ancestral past to promote a mes-

sage of self-actualization and cultural definition (Van DeBurg,

1992). Biko shared the ideals of these schools of thought that

came before him. The emancipation of the oppressed Black

people in South Africa was dependent upon the oppressed

fighting for their liberation. Biko asserted that Black people are

the only ones who could liberate themselves from political op-

pression (Wilson, 2012).

Education: The Context in Which Biko Wrote

Biko’s philosophy needs to be understood within the context

in which it was written. When he formulated his ideas on edu-

cation and various other political and societal challenges there

were a number of education systems in South Africa for differ-

ent racial groups. All these were guided by the apartheid phi-

losophy of Fundamental Pedagogics which in turn was based

on what was referred to by the White Afrikaner church as

Christian National Education (CNE). This was a philosophy

that purported to be propelled by Calvinism and Christian Na-

tionalism. Fundamental Pedagogics also regarded all children

as blank slates or tabula rasas. Du Plooy and Kilian (1983)

point out that man (sic) is educating his children with a view to

assisting them educatively “to become proper human beings on

their way to adulthood”. Education under Fundamental Peda-

gogics envisaged the role of the adult to be that an imparter of

knowledge upon the child. “There is only one way in which to

realize the child’s becoming an adult and that is with the help

and accompaniment of a responsible adult as his fellow man”

(Du Plooy & Kilian, 1983: p. 4).

Within this rather twisted view of education apartheid educa-

tion regarded Bantu Education for Blacks as a form of domina-

tion over the oppressed. Article 15 of the CNE document de-

clared:

We believe that the calling and task of White South Africa

with regard to the native is to Christianise him and help

him on culturally, and that this calling and task has al-

ready found its nearer focusing in the principles of trus-

teeship, no equality and segregation. We believe besides

that any system of teaching and education of natives must

be based on the same principle. In accordance with these

principles we believe that the teaching and education of

the native must be grounded in the life and worldview of

the Whites most especially those of the Boer nation as

senior White trustee of the native…

Apartheid education system abused religion while it enforced

divisions among ethnic groups in South Africa. It was a prac-

tice of maintaining that status quo and of preserving the master-

servant relationship between the Black Africans and the Whites.

It was intended to “entrench apartheid capitalism”, as was noted

V. MSILA

at the conference on People’s Education in December 1985.

Kallaway (1988) points out that apartheid education not only

domesticated the people but indoctrinated them as well. Bantu

Education for Black South Africans had been a means of re-

stricting the development of the learner by distorting school

knowledge to ensure control over the intellect of the learners

and teachers, and propagating state propaganda (Kallaway,

1988).

The CNE principles on education for the Africans were de-

clared as a way of maintaining the Black South Africans in a

permanent state of political and economic subordination. The

education system had been an obvious instrument of control to

protect power and privilege. And not only had apartheid educa-

tion separated White children from Black children; it had also

divided White children into separate camps (Hartshorne, 1986).

The Black learners did not only feel the damaging effects of the

CNE. It was destructive to the White learner as well because

they learnt only a White view of society. Several government

reports spelt out the objectives of apartheid clearly.

The Eiselen Report was based on the Eiselen Commission

which was operational in the 1950s when the Bantu Education

system for Black Africans was introduced in South Africa. The

Commission claimed that Black African children’s intellect was

of a different nature to that of Whites, and that these learners

thus needed a special sort of education. Furthermore, the Eise-

len Report also pointed out that Black Africans should not imi-

tate English and other European cultures; they should stick to

education that inculcates the character of a unique (African)

people (Giliomee, 2009: p. 194). Bantu Education was based on

this premise. The teacher unions during this period were op-

posed to this system which emphasized racial difference and

white superiority. Arguably, the specter of apartheid education

still looms large. Many teachers were trained under this system.

Stephen Biko wrote many of his essays responding to this sys-

tem. Below, the focus is on how Biko’s philosophy responds to

educational challenges today. It does this by teasing the various

themes that Biko underscored in his writings on society and

education.

Biko and Black Consciousness

Having unpacked Fanon and the Black power movement’s

beliefs, it is also crucial to briefly demonstrate what Biko’s BC

stood for. This is crucial in understanding how he perceived the

role of education in society. Biko had read Pau lo Frei re’s Peda -

gogy of the Oppressed and later concurred that teaching should

be a political act, “directly related to production, health, social

conditions, to the regular system of instruction, and to the over-

all plan for a society still to be realized in the future” (Wilson,

2012: p. 59). In his own words Biko states that, “Black Con-

sciousness therefore, takes cognizance of the deliberateness of

God’s plan in creating black people black. It seeks to infuse the

black community with a new-found pride in themselves, their

efforts, their value systems, their culture, their religion and their

outlook to life” (Biko, 1987: p. 49). He always perceived an

intense interrelationship between the consciousness of self and

emancipatory agenda. Therefore, Biko defined Black Consci-

ousness as an attitude of the mind and a way of life. Its phi-

losophy was to express “group pride and a determination of the

Black people to arise and attain the envisaged self” (Wilson,

2012).

Identity and Culture

The Black Consciousness that Biko stood for accentuated the

affirmation of Black culture and Black identity. Biko was

against racial integration, which emphasized an assimilationist

position. He did not approve of the disadvantaged people hav-

ing to accept a set of norms and code of behavior set up and

maintained by Western values. For Biko (1987: p. 24), true in-

tegration meant:

Free participation by all members of a society, catering

the full expression of the self in a freely changing society

as determined by the will of the people... For one cannot

escape the fact that the culture shared by the majority

group in any given society must ultimately determine the

broad direction taken by the joint culture of that society.

This need not cramp the style of those who feel differently

buit on the whole, a country in Africa, in which the ma-

jority of people are African must inevitably exhibit Afri-

can values and be truly African in style.

He also goes on to bewail the destruction of structures built

in the African society by colonialism and imperialism. He con-

tends that not only was the Native’s brain emptied but the his-

tory was deliberately distorted as well. As history was de-

stroyed, so wa s the culture:

No longer was reference made to African culture, it be-

came barbarism... Religious practices and customs were

referred to as superstition... No wonder the African child

learns to hate his heritage in his days at school. So ne-

gative is the image presented to him that he tends to find

solace only in close identification with the white society

(Biko, 1987: p. 29).

The participants reiterated the commitment Biko showed to-

wards culture and identity in the movie. They perceived him as

a man who saw culture and identity as conduits to pride and

affirmation of being a rightful citizen in South Africa. The par-

ticipants also saw Biko as magnifying the role of being “true

African”. However, Biko did not believe that African culture is

static. Many skeptics of Africanization usually pose questions

such as; what is culture? Whose culture?—In a very tongue in

cheek manner. It is true that as people enhance their nation

building endeavors they need to explain what they mean by

culture. Biko was appalled at the fact that Africans were not

expected to have any understanding of their own cultures. He

maintained that people needed to relate the past to the present

and demonstrate an historical evolution of the modern African.

Biko (1987: p. 70) contends:

We must reject the attempts by the powers that be to pro-

ject an arrested image of our culture... They have deli-

berately arrested our culture at the tribal stage to per-

petuate the myth that African people were near cannibals,

had no real ambitions in life, and were occupied with sex

and drink.

African cultures as envisaged in the Africanization process

need to be seen in light of this dynamism. It is also crucial that

people must not delude themselves by thinking that there is one

African culture in Africa or South Africa. Within Africa, there

are myriad cultures as there are languages and religions. How-

ever, culture here would refer to the basic inspiration and ethos

of belonging to Africa. It is that which connects the band of

494

V. MSILA

Africans together including history and commitment of being

born in the Continent.

Dei (2012) argues that there is a need to reclaim local cul-

tural resource knowledge that herald issues of the past, culture,

ancestral knowledge, history, heritage and language. Further-

more Dei underscores the re-assertion of identities that recog-

nize the genuineness of African voice and human experience.

Dei (2012: p. 47) avers:

Reclaiming and affirming African past intellectual tradi-

tions, knowledge and contributions in world history is a

necessary exercise in our own decolonization. African

peoples have something to offer to the world. Besides our

humanism we have a gift of knowledge that helps to in-

form an understanding of humanity. Reflecting on the Af-

rican past, present and future as a continuum offers im-

portant lessons for Africans to design own futures.

These arguments support the identity and culture that Biko

talks about. The Black Power movement and Fanon cited in li-

terature above also concur with this reclaiming of the rightful

culture and identity. The qualities highlighted above are all

crucial in empowering the African people. Biko (1987) argued

that the African child in school learns to hate his heritage be-

cause at school the African image is presented so negatively

that the Black child tends to identify with the white society.

Furthermore, Dei (2012) opines that there needs to be a rede-

fined decolonized education to build spiritually and politically

sustainable communities of learning. He then refer to the latter

as schooling as community. In this way education according to

Dei translates into pedagogy of hope that empowers the learn-

ers.

Dei also points out that African people need education where

the African learners are at the center. He also points out that

such education should emphasize the centrality of culture to

pedagogy as it affirms identity. “African-centered education

works with principles of community, solidarity, social respon-

sibility, mutual independence, collective histories and spiritual

learning” (Dei, 2012: p. 51). Biko (1987) cites Fanon when he

emphasizes the need for a national consciousness. He says co-

lonialism has destroyed the essence of Black people. As a result,

“at the end of it all, the Blacks have nothing to lean on, nothing

to cheer them up at the present moment and very much afraid of

in the future” (Biko, 1987: p. 69). There is a special place of a

teacher who enhances the learners’ selves, collective ethnic and

cultural pride for a strong African identity and personality. Biko

maintained that these are all qualities that need to be empha-

sized in African classrooms in order for the learners to regain

self-worth and confidence in the world. This culture and iden-

tity is linked to ubuntu or African humanism that Biko espous-

ed.

African Humanism: Building Ubuntu

Biko’s BC was a perpetual quest for humanism. In South Af-

rican Nguni languages this is what is referred to as ubuntu.

Ubuntu is the actual meaning of life in African societies. One

lives for fellow brethren; a neighbor cannot starve if I have

victuals however, small. The latter is an inherent African value

and Biko (1987: p. 24) argued that, “In Africa, in which the

majority of the people are African must inevitably exhibit Af-

rican values and be truly African in style”. Furthermore, Biko

contends that Africans develop a sense of belonging to the

community within a short time of coming together. He says that

the oneness of community is at the heart of the Black African

cultures and the easiness in which the Africans communicate

with each other is not forced by any authority but is inherent in

the genes of the African people. The BC philosophy wanted the

Black people to value their own lifestyle, their outlook and

standards.

Boaduo (2012) extends Biko’s arguments in her discussions.

She contends that there is a need for South African education to

play a role of humanizing its citizens on principles based on

ubuntu. She also speaks of a need to re-educate the ethnic

groups that were injured by apartheid policies. This author

states that the dehumanization of South Africans affected all

racial groups. The White South Africans in the process of in-

doctrinating their children dehumanized their ethnic group. “In

the same way the Black racial groups who have been deliber-

ately de-humanized and excluded from any worthwhile partici-

pation in government including their various counterparts-In-

dians and Coloreds also need to be re-educated” (Boaduo, 2012:

p. 955).

Mthembu (1996) describes ubuntu as the key to all African

values and that it involves humanness, a good disposition to-

wards others, and a moral nature. Furthermore, Mthembu avers

that ubuntu describes the significance of group solidarity and

interdependence in African culture. Mbigi (2005: p. v) supports

this by pointing out that ubuntu is a metaphor that describes the

significance of group solidarity on survival issues that is so

vital to the survival of African communities. Schools tend to re-

flect the society in which they are built. Parts of ubuntu are ma-

nifested through certain aspects such as humanism that Biko

also explored. There are however, many challenges to ubuntu

way of life in the present society. If Biko were alive he would

disappointed by the levels of societal ills such as xenophobia,

crimes, declining morality among Black Africans. In fact, Ntuli

(1999: p. 184) states that the spirit of ubuntu has long disap-

peared and he states that that is the reason why we need an

African renaissance. Furthermore, Ntuli opines that in the face

of the present cultural and moral collapse in South Africa, there

is a need to strive for a rebirth. Yet, Dandala (1996: p. 70)

states that ubuntu requires a great deal of learning and sharing

and institutions can achieve this through the training of people

to practice greater interaction. Schools and the societies around

them need to learn the values of ubuntu.

Education and Languages

Biko (in Woods) maintained that there was a need for Black

people to use indigenous languages because they could express

themselves better in their mother tongue. He pointed out that

speaking another language makes many students to feel “a

sense of inadequacy”. Biko also stated that when students can-

not express themselves in a foreign language they tend to judge

themselves negatively. They tend to contend that their intelli-

gence is not as good as that of first language speakers of Eng-

lish for example. “You tend to feel that that guy is better equip-

ped than you mentally” (Woods, 1991: p. 169). The idea of us-

ing indigenous languages in schools has never been so relevant

in the education discourse. Many critics cite the non-use of in-

digenous languages in schools as among the crucial reasons as

to why Black learners do not fare well in their studies in South

Africa. Furthermore, Biko declared that this difficulty of coping

with a foreign language in schools led to an inferiority com-

V. MSILA

496

plex. Language created Blacks who had an inferiority complex.

Biko also writes about how Black people became less articulate,

inward looking because of the lack of linguistic skills. In a for-

eign language, “you feel things rather than say them... English

is completely foreign and therefore people find it difficult to

move beyond a certain point in their comprehension of the lan-

guage” (Biko, 1987: p. 123).

Like Biko, Fanon argued more about language implications.

He points out that being colonized by a language has deep im-

plications for one’s consciousness. Fanon (1967) also contend-

ed that the use of foreign languages by Black people alienated

the people from their natural selves creating a disjuncture be-

tween the Black man’s consciousness and his body. Further-

more, he identifies the use of language as a tool for liberation

for the colonized (1967). Clearly, Biko and Fanon perceived

language as an aspect of culture and identity that should not be

destroyed. The Black Power movement also emphasized that

for Black people to understand themselves, they should not be

alienated from their culture and identity (McCormack, 1984).

Conclusion

Arguably, the ideals of democracy, equality and social justice

should be pivotal in teacher education programs. Without these

aspects post-apartheid education will not achieve what it is

supposed to achieve. The South African education is built upon

the democratic constitution of the Republic. Values embraced

by philosophers such as Biko will be crucial in realizing some

of the ideals of the post-apartheid education system. Biko used

liberation theories to emancipate the individuals from the con-

straints enforced by society. Existing research on Biko also

shows the implications of Biko’s philosophy on the society in

general. This article has also revealed how his theory shares

similar notions to Frantz Fanon’s as well as the Black Power

movements. There are others that are relevant such as Paulo

Freire’s pedagogy which is not discussed in this article. The

article has also illustrated how political debates cannot be

separated from pedagogic arguments. Education is intertwined

with society and although Biko was mainly commenting on

society and politics, his philosophy has huge implications for

education. Finally, through Biko’s philosophy one can see that

education is always based on values and it is through values

that individuals will find liberating or restricting.

REFERENCES

Biko, S. (1987). I write what I like. Oxford: Heinemann.

Boaduo, N. A. (2012). Philosophical analysis of education for the en-

hancement of development, social justice and good governance in

South Africa. E d u ca t io n a l Research, 3, 954-960.

Carmichael, S., & Hamilton, C. V. (1967). Black power: The politics of

liberation in America. New York: Vintage Bo oks.

Dandala, H. M. (1996). Cows never die: Embracing African cosmology

in the process of economic growth. In R. Lessem, & B Nassbaum

(Eds.), Sawubona Africa: Embracing four worlds in South African

management (pp. 69- 85). Sandton: Zebra.

Dei, G. J. S. (2012). Reclaiming our Africanness in the disporised con-

text: The challenge of asserting a critical African personality. The

Journal of Pan African Studies, 4, 42-57.

Du Plooy, J. L., & Kilian, C. J. G. (1983). Introduction to fundamental

pedagogics. Pretoria: Haum Educational Publishers.

Fanon, F. (1967). Black skins, white masks (Translated by C. L. Mark-

mann). New York: Grove Press.

Fanon, F. (2001). The wretched of the earth (translated by C. Farring-

ton). New York: Grove P ress.

Gibson, N. C. (2011). Fanonian Practices in South Africa: From steve

biko to abahlali basemjondolo. Scottsville: University of KwaZulu-

Natal Press.

Giliomee, H. (2009). A note on bantu education, 1953 to 1970. South

African Journal of Economics, 77, 190- 198.

doi:10.1111/j.1813-6982.2009.01193.x

Hartshorne, K. B. (1986). INSET in South Africa: HSRC report 1985.

Bloemfontein: The Urban Foundation.

Joseph, P. E. (2003). Dashikis and democracy: Black studies, student

activism, and the black power movement. The History of Black Stu-

dent Activism, 88, 182-203.

Joseph, P. E. (2009). The black power movement: A state of the field.

The Journal of American History, 751-776.

doi:10.1093/jahist/96.3.751

Kallaway, P. (1988). From Bantu education to peoples’ education.

Cape Town: UCT.

Mbigi, L. (2005). Ubuntu: The spirit of African transformation man-

agement. Randburg: K n o w l edge Resources.

McCormack, D. J. (1984). Black power: Political ideology. Ann Arbor:

University of New York.

Msila, V. (2012). Memory, educators and pedagogy: Viewing cry free-

dom-unearthing Biko’s philosophy in the classroom. Journal of So-

ciology and Anthropolo gy , 3, 163-171.

Mthembu, D. (1996). African values: Discovering the indigenous roots

of management. In R. Lessem, & B. Nassbaum (Eds.), Sawubona Af-

rica: Embracing four worlds in South African management (pp. 215-

226). Sandton: Zebra.

Ntuli, P. (1999). The missing link between culture and education: Are

we still chasing Gods that are not our own? In M. W. Makgoba (Ed.),

African renaissance (pp. 184-199). Cape Town: Mafube.

Staszak, J. (2008). Publie dans international encyclopedia of human

geography. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Van DeBurg, W. L. (1992). New day in Babylon: The black power

movement and American culture, 1965-1975. Chicago: University of

Chicago Press.

Wilson, L. (2012). Steve Biko. Auckland Park: Jacana.

Woods, D. (1991). The true story of the young South African martyr

and his struggle to raise Black Consciousness. New York: Henry

Holt and Co.