Paid Work & Decision Making Power of Married Women Cross Sectional Survey of Muzaffarabad Azad State of Jammu & Kashmir

doi:10.4236/aasoci.2013.33022

Paper Menu >>

Journal Menu >>

Advances in Applied Sociology

2013. Vol.3, No.3, 165-171

Published Online July 2013 in SciRes (http://www.scirp.org/journal/aasoci) http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/aasoci.2013.33022

Paid Work & Decision Making Power of Married Women

Cross Sectional Survey of Muzaffarabad Azad State

of Jammu & Kashmir

Sheeba Arooj1*, Wafa Hussain2, Amber Arooj3, Asif Iqbal2, Saqib Ham eed2, Atif Abbasi4

1Institute of Social & Cultural Studies, University of Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan

2Department of Sociology & Rural Development, University of Azad Jammu & Kashmir,

Muzaffarabad, Pakistan

3Extension Services Management Academy, Ghari Dupatta, Muzaffarabad, Pakistan

4Department of Statistics, U n iversity of Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Muzaffarabad, Pakistan

Email: *[email protected]

Received March 23rd, 2013; revi s ed A pril 26th, 2013; accepted May 4th, 2013

Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the

original work is properly cited.

Background: Current research focuses primarily on women’s autonomy in decision making while little

attention is paid to their freedom of expression. Socioeconomic & socio-demographic factors affect

women’s autonomy in decision making. In the developing countries, particularly in Pakistan, although

women are making significant financial contributions but they are still under collective decisions of hus-

band and other family members while sometimes they are blindly relying on husband’s decision. Objec-

tive of study was to find out association of women’s autonomy in decision making & socioeconomic fac-

tors. Method: Cross sectional survey was conducted in Muzaffarabad Azad Kashmir on married working

women (N = 500). The data consist of women’s three decisions: birth control decision, financial decision

and freedom of expression. A number of socio-demographic variables were used in chi-square analysis to

examine the association of these variables with the said decisions. Results: Age, residence, education,

professional differences, job nature, monthly income of married women are positively associated with

autonomy in decision making. 59% women of above 30 years age exercise independence in birth control

decisions (p value 0.02). Urban women (96%) are more likely to be autonomous in birth control decision

than women from rural areas (p value 0.00). Educational attainment effects women autonomy as profes-

sionally qualified women (87.2%) are more independent in birth control decisions, independent in spend-

ing income (86.5%), having freedom of expression (55.4%). Furthermore women living in nuclear fami-

lies exercise more independence in birth control decisions (77.2), income spending decisions (76) and en-

joy more freedom of expression (56.2). Women working in government sector have independence in birth

control (71), financial decisions (70.4), and freedom of expression (52.4%) with p value 0.00. Women

earning salary of above 20,000 enjoy autonomy in birth control decisions (87.5%), financial decisions

(87.2%), freedom of expression (57.4) with p value 0.00.

Keywords: Women; Decision; Birth Control; Financial Decision; Freedom of Expression; Chi-Square

Introduction

Socio-demographic factors affect women’s independence in

making decisions regarding health, household, family planning

etc are poorly studied in Muzaffarabad AJK. Women’s eco-

nomic dependency has long been understood to be a major

factor in structuring inequalities between men and women. Con-

trol over financial resources is often considered a central di-

mension when measuring women’s household position.

Women’s role has been a priority factor not only for sustain-

able development, but also in reproductive health. Autonomy is

the ability to gain information and make decisions about con-

cerns of one’s own (Dyson, Moore et al., 1983). Autonomy

facilitates easy access to material resources such as food, land,

income and other forms of wealth and social resources such as

knowledge, power, prestige within the family and community

(Dixon, 1978).

In Muzaffarabad out of 0.632 million population 0.305 mil-

lion are females (projected population 2010 census 1998).

Women of working class families exert more influence in

decisions of family than women of middle class. And no matter

they are employed or not, wives in working-class families have

more say in family decision-making than wives in middle-class

families. It is also found that there is a positive association be-

tween the number of chi ldren and th e influence of the husb and in

decision-making (Heer & David, 1958).

Situation in Pakistan

*Corresponding author. In Pakistan women who met their fiance prior marriage were

S. AROOJ ET AL.

one quarter and those who put into decision of choosing life

partner were 11.5%. More than 5 0% women discu ssed with their

partner regarding use of contraceptives and the percentage of

women agreed on number of children was 44.2%. Women who

have freedom in selection of spouse are more likely to make

decisions regarding number of children. Adoptions of contracep-

tives were more likely to be associated more with older age and

higher education at marriage (Saima & Stephenson, 2011).

In Pakistan the region more than the religion plays an impor-

tant role in defining the autonomy of women. Autonomy of

women in decision making is positively associated with em-

ployment, number of living children and their ages. Women of

rural areas have relatively less autonomy in decision making.

Autonomy in decision making is related with education of

women. Interestingly women who are rich have less independ-

ence to make decisions about their health care. Women’s con-

dition was also unsatisfactory with respect to access and control

over economic r esources. Women who cou ld speak in househo ld

spending were 59% whereas 70.4% women were those who

could spend money in their homes by themselves, which means

the majority of the women . But in case of bu ying valuable things,

participation o f women were l imited to 16% i.e. those who could

buy small jewellery, and women who could buy gifts by their

own were 23.7%. Women who could own and have control on

their valuable things were 61.1% and those who could speak in

their dowry related decisions were 33.6%. 28.9% of women

could speak in husband’s home in different matters. Women

have little control over her savings by themselves (Jejeebhoy &

Shireen, 2001).

Increased autonomy of women in different aspects of life is

related with paid work. In many village, areas mobility of

women is restricted and women practice “purdah”. In the rural

areas, paid work is considered undesirable because it involves

working outside the home and therefore only the poorest

women engage in work as farm labourers, and agricultural la-

bourers are amongst the lowest paid group in the rural sector.

Poverty therefore is a major determinant that drives women into

low-wage work (Kazi & Shahnaz, 1999). Women had to do

household tasks along with paid work because their husbands

did not help them (Shaheed & Farida, 1981). Study conducted

in Multan revealed that 42.9% working women were those who

had to take permission from family for going outside. 36%

argued that their brothers got more privilege as compared to

them from their parents (Ali & Ishaque, 2010).

Addressing gender inequality issues Pakistan is far from

ideal however there are significant efforts made by social pro-

tection projects as it provided numerous benefits to women in

term of cash empowerment which has shown to improve deci-

sion making power of those women. They are more likely to

use reproductive health services, moreover household invest-

ments shift from transportation and food to medical care, edu-

cation, fuel, lighting, footwear and clothing.

Employment and education have always empowered women

and brought a positive impact on decision making, including

reducing the inequalities among men and women. One effective

method to do so is to incorporate the notion of empowerment in

school curricula. Attention should also be given to those

women who do not attend school, through non-formal educa-

tion. A curriculum for such programmes should be developed

with a clear policy framework to reduce differences in educa-

tion and employment between men and women (Mumtaz &

Salway, 2007). Employment of women is positively associated

with delayed marriage and child birth (Jensen, 2012). Women

of urban areas are more involved in working and they exercise

control over their earnings and in discussion of family planning

with their husbands than women of rural areas. More adoption

of family planning is associated with educational level of

women (Furuta, 2006). In structuring inequality between men

& women, economic dependency plays an important role. For

measuring household position, the important dimension is

women’s control over financial resources (Standing, 1991).

Married Women having paid work & education are more

likely to participate in decision making (Roth, 2001). Inde-

pendence of women in decision making is positively associated

with employment, education, number of living children and age.

Rural women with no education could not exercise autonomy in

decision making (Ahmmed & Chakraborty, 2012). Women with

completed higher education are considered for consent of mar-

riage (93.3%), enjoy higher purchasing power (46.7%), auto-

nomous in decisions regarding politics (86.7%) whereas illiter-

ate women have no say in marriage related decision, having no

purchasing power (0.0%) and political decision making (77.8%)

(Sanjoy, 2012). Contraceptive use is significantly associated

with decision autonomy than autonomy of movement (Saleem

& Bobak, 2005).

Methodology

A cross sectional descriptive study was conducted in district

Muzaffarabad. A sample of 500 married working women was

taken as per judgement of researcher because number of work-

ing women was limited (purposive sampling).

Data Collection

A close ended structured questionnaire was used to collect

data of participants regarding decision making power with re-

gard to birth control, independence in income spending and

freedom of expression. The level of the questionnaire was that

of layman understanding.

Inclusion & Exclusion Criteria

Present study excluded unmarried and non-working women

as primary interest of researcher was to find out changing role

of married working women.

Analysis

Data were entered and analy sed using SPSS software version

20. Both descriptive (percentage) and inferential (chi-square)

statistics were used for data analysis. Results on the variables

were presented with cross tabulation.

Measures

Independent variables which were chosen to represent deci-

sion making in above said areas were age, residence, education

(primary and secondary were recorded into secondary), job title,

job nature, family type, monthly income and expenses afforded

by women. Bivariate analysis was performed to check out the

association between variables.

Results

Table 1 describes that Working married women between age

166

S. AROOJ ET AL.

Table 1.

Response of respondents about different variable.

Characteristics Variable Frequency%

20 - 25 years 86 17.2

26 - 30 165 33.0

Age Above 30 249 49.8

Urban 250 50

Residence Rural 250 50

Secondary 47 9.4

Higher secondary 157 31.4

Education

Professional 296 59.2

Banking 56 11.2

Teaching 241 48.2

Medical 85 17.0

Job title

Any other 118 23.6

Government 355 71.0

Private 120 24.0

Business 18 3.6

Nature of job

Any other 7 1.4

Nuclear 333 66.6

Joint 154 30.8

Extended 9 1.8

Family type

Any other 4 0.8

Syed 55 11.0

Mughal 61 12.2

Chaudary 53 10.6

Family caste

Any other 331 66.2

Less than 5000 18 3.6

5000 - 10,000 56 11.2

11,000 - 15,000 55 11.0

16,000 - 20,000 75 15.0

Average mont h l y

income

Above 20,000 296 59.2

Yes 154 30.8

Independe nce of

field selection No 346 69.2

Yes 241 48.2

Freedom of

expression No 259 51.8

Yes 257 51.4

Your suggestion

beign valued by

husband No 243 48.6

Yes 266 53.2

Allowed to make

decision of birt h

control No 234 46.8

Husband 179 35.8

In-laws (mother, father) 32 6.4

Your own 1 0.2

Selection of

number of children is

made by You and your husband 287 57.4

Complete 132 26.4

Partially 239 47.8

Expenses a fforded b y

women Free will 129 25.8

Yes 245 49.0

Independent i n

managing

financial dec i sions No 255 51.0

Yes 263 52.6

Independence in

spending your

income No 236 47.2

Yes 398 79.6

Working women has

financial

control in family No 101 20.2

Yes 348 69.6

Independent i n

decision rega rdi ng

investment No 152 30.4

group of above 30 years were 49.8%. Working women of urban

area were 50%, and 50% were of rural areas. As far as their

educational attainment is concerned 59.2%, women were hav-

ing professional qualification, 48.2% women were teachers,

71% were working in government sector. Sampled women be-

longing to nuclear family were 66.6%. 59.2% women were

earning above 20,000 monthly incomes. 69.2% women were

not independent to choose any job field of their choice. 51.8%

women were having no freedom of expression, suggestion be-

ing valued and acknowledged by husband were 51.4%. 53.2%

were allowed to make decision regarding birth control as far as

decision regarding selection of number of children is concerned,

57.4% decisions were made by collaboration of both husband

and wife. 47.8% were having partial responsibility to afford

expenses at home. 51% were no independent in financial deci-

sions. Women who were independent in spending income were

52.6%. 79.6% women were of view that working women have

financial control in family. 69.6% women were having inde-

pendence in decisions regarding investment of income.

Table 2 shows that that 59.4% women (above 30 years) were

having independence and 53.3% (26 - 30) were having no

autonomy in birth control decisions. Age of married working

women had strong positive association with autonomy in birth

control decisions (p-value 0.02). As far as residence is con-

cerned as depicted in Figure 1, 96.8% urban women were hav-

ing independence in decisions & 90.4% rural women were not

autonomous in decision regarding birth control. Residential

patterns are significantly associated with autonomy in birth

control decisions (p 0.00). 95.7% (secondary level education)

women were not independent, 96.2% (higher secondary) were

not. Whereas professionally qualified women were having auto-

nomy in this regard was 87.2%, so the educational attainment

of respondent was significantly associated with birth control

decisions (p 0.00). Women working in medical sector were

independent (62.4%), whereas 62.5% banker women were not

independent in birth control decisions. Professional differences

are associated with independence in reproductive health deci-

sions (p 0.01). Women working in government sector were

autonomous 71% whereas in private sector 92.5% were having

no autonomy. Nature of women’s job is significantly associated

with independence in birth control decisions (p 0.00). Women

of nuclear family were independe nt (77.2%) whereas in extended

families, 100% were having no type of family which is signifi-

cantly associated with birth control decisions (p 0.00). Women

getting salary above 20,000 were 87.5% independent whereas

women getting lower salaries enjoy less independence p 0.00.

Table 3 shows that older age women were more independent

in income spending by their own (58.8%) than rest of age cate-

gories women of urban area who were having independence

(95.6%) whereas 4% having not. In rural areas 9.6% women

were independent whereas 90.4% women were not independent

in this regard. Residential pattern is significantly associated

with independence in income spending (p 0.00). As far as edu-

cational attainment is concerned 90.4% women of secondary

level education were not independent whereas of higher secon-

dary level 96.8% were not, 86.5% professionally qualified

women were having independence with p value 0.00.

Medical professionals were comparatively more independent

(60%) and women of banking sector were less likely to make

financial decisions (58.9%) in family. Government sector work-

ing women were having independence (70%) and those work-

ing in business sector were havng no independence (88.9%) i

S. AROOJ ET AL.

168

Table 2.

Reproductive health decisions against socioeconomic factors.

Birth control

Yes No

Characteristics

F (%) F (%)

Chi-square value p value

20 - 25 yea r s 41 (47.7) 4 5 (52.3)

26 - 30 77 (46.7) 88 (53.3)

Age

Above 30 148 (59.4) 101 (40.6)

7.77 0.02

Urban 242 (96.8) 8 (3.2)

Residence Rural 24 (9.6) 22 6 (90.4) 381.75 0.00

Secondary 2 (4.3) 45 (95.7)

Higher secondary 6 (3.8) 151 (96.2)

Education

Professional 258 (87.2) 38 (12.8)

336.10 0.00

Banking 21 (37.5) 35 (62.5)

Teaching 122 (50.6) 119 (49.4)

Medical 53 (62.4) 32 (37.6 )

Job title

Any other 70 (59.3) 48 (40.7)

10.82 0.01

Government 252 (71) 103 (29)

Private 9 (7.5) 111 (92.5)

Business 3 (16.7) 15 ( 83 .3)

Nature of job

Any other 2 (28.6) 5 (71.4)

157.11 0.00

Nuclea r 257 (77.2) 76 (22.8)

Joint 9 (5.8) 145 (94.2)

Extended 0 (0) 9 (100)

Family type

Any other 0 (0) 4 (100)

230.38 0.00

Less than 50 0 0 0 (0) 18 (100)

5000 - 10,000 2 (3.6) 54 (96.4)

11,000 - 15,000 3 (5.5) 52 (94.5)

16,000 - 20,000 2 (2.7) 73 (97.3)

Average mont h l y income

Above 20,000 25 9 (87.5) 37 (12.5)

343.01 0.00

Complete 76 (57.6) 56 (42.4)

Partial 114 (47.7) 125 (52.3)

Expenses a fforded b y

women Free will 76 (58.9) 53 (41.1 )

5.61 0.06

100

150

200

250

yes no

urban

rural

Figure 1.

Birth control decisions & residece p = 0.000.

with p-value 0.00. Women of nuclear family exercise inde-

pendence (76%) whereas in joint family women have no inde-

pendence (94%) in extended families (100%). Family type is

significantly associated with women’s independence in finan-

cial decisions. Women earning more than 20,000 were exercis-

ing independence (87.2%) whereas women earning less than

5000 were having no independence (100%). Monthly earning

of women is associated with their independence in this regard

with p value 0.00. Women who are supposed to afford financial

burden of family on their free will exercise independence

61.2% with p value 0.01.

Table 4 shows that women of urban areas were having free-

dom of expression (58.8%) whereas in rural areas 62.4%

women were having no freedom and residence is associated

with freedom of expression with p value 0.00. Professionally

qualified women were having independence in expressing their

ideas (55.4%) whereas 66% women were not independent in

this regard significantly associated with p value 0.00. Women

working in private sector have no independence in this regard

(65.8%) significantly associated with p value 0.00. Women of

nuclear family enjoy freedom of expression (56.2%) with p

value 0.00. Women earning more than 20,000 exercise freedom

of expression (57.4%) and those with earning less than 5000

(77.8%) were having no independence. Monthly income of

women is significantly associated with freedom of expression

with p value 0.00. Women who are supposed to afford complete

financial burden of family exercise independence in this regard

57.6% whereas 58.1% women were having no independence

who were supposed to afford financial burden on their free will.

S. AROOJ ET AL.

Table 3.

Financial decision against socioeconomic factors.

Independen ce in income spending

Yes No

Characteristics

F (%) F (%)

Chi-square value p value

20 - 25 yea r s 42 (48 .8) 44 (51.2)

26 - 30 76 (46.1) 88 (53.3)

Age

Above 30 145 (58.2) 104 (41.8)

8.26 0.08

Urban 239 (95.6) 10 (4)

Residence Rural 24 (9.6) 226 (90.4) 374.45 0.00

Secondary 2 (4.3) 45 (95.7)

Higher secondary 5 (3.2) 152 (96.8) Education

Professional 2 56 (86.5) 39 (13.2)

337.02 0.00

Banking 23 (41.1) 33 (58.9)

Teaching 122 (50.6) 119 (49.4)

Medical 51 (60) 34 (40)

Job title

Any other 67 ( 56.8) 50 (42.4)

9.49 0.14

Government 250 (70.4) 104 (29.3)

Private 9 (7.5) 11 1 (52.5)

Business 2 (11.1) 16 (88.9)

Nature of job

Any other 2 (28.6) 5 (71.4)

158.68 0.00

Nuclear 253 (76) 79 (23.7)

Joint 9 (5.8) 145 (94.2)

Extended 0 (0) 9 (100)

Family type

Any other 1 (25) 3 (75)

221.20 0.00

Less than 50 0 0 0 ( 0) 18 (100)

5000 - 10,000 1 (1. 8) 55 (98.2)

11,000 - 15,000 1 (1.8) 54 (98.2)

16,000 - 20,000 3 (4) 72 (96)

Average mont h l y income

Above 20,000 258 (87.2) 37 (12.5)

350.65 0.00

Complete 75 (56.8) 56 (42.4)

Partial 109 (45.6) 130 (54.4)

Expenses a fforded b y

women Free will 79 (61.2) 50 (38.8)

12.49

0.01

So level of expenses afforded by women is associated with

freedom of expression with p value 0.03.

Discussion

Purpose of study was to explore link between socioeconomic

factors & autonomy in decision making. Reproductive health

decisions are increased with advancement of age of working

women whereas women of younger age group are less likely to

participate in birth control decisions. Regional differences ef-

fect women’s autonomy in reproductive health decisions, in-

come spending decisions and freedom of expression as elabo-

rated younger urban women enjoy greater autonomy in above

said decisions whereas rural women are still under collective

decisions of husbands and other family members. Urban areas

are characterized by better use of facilities (health services &

education). Some advantaged urban women have exceed their

rural counterparts because of higher levels of knowledge, ac-

cess to services and health promotion programs that use urban-

focused mass media, thus leaving out their rural counterparts

who may be largely influenced by traditional practices. Results

of this study confirm this advantage with significant statistical

significance.

As far as educational attainment of married working women

is concerned, women having general education degrees (secon-

dary & higher secondary) are less likely to be autonomous in

expressing their ideas freely. First possible explanation of find-

ing is that women with secondary (9.4%) & higher secondary

education (31.4%) are low compared to professional qualifica-

tion. In deciding number of children, how and when to spend

income, in contrast professionally qualified women exercise

more independence in all said decision because of having pro-

fessional skills, social exposure etc. Professional differences are

associated with reproductive health decisions as it affects

women’s autonomy of decisions of birth control, women work-

ing in medical profession enjoys more independence in this

regard. Women of nuclear family (husband, wife & unmarried

children) are more empowered to decide than those of joint and

extended families as women of joint and extended families are

till under decisions of husbands, in-laws and others. s

S. AROOJ ET AL.

Table 4.

Freedom of expression ag a i nst socio-demographic fac tors.

Freedom of expression

Yes No

Characteristics

F (%) F (%)

Chi-square value p value

Urban 147 (58.8) 103 (41.2)

Residence Rural 94 (37.6) 156 (62.4) 22.50 0.00

Secondary 16 (34) 31 (66)

Higher secondary 61 (38.9) 96 (61.1) Education

Professional 164 (55.4) 132 (44.6)

15.42 0.00

Banking 21 (37.5) 35 (62.5)

Teaching 11 6 (48.1) 125 (51.9)

Medical 47 (55.3) 38 (44.7)

Job title

Any other 57 (48.3) 61 (51.7)

4.28 0.23

Government 186 (52.4) 169 (47.6)

Private 41 (34.2) 79 (65.8)

Business 10 (55.6) 8 (44.4)

Job nature

Any other 4 (57.1) 3 (42.9)

12.58 0.00

Nuclea r 187 (56.2) 146 (43.8)

Joint 50 (32.5) 104 (67.5)

Extended 3 (33.3) 6 (66.7)

Family type

Any other 1 (25) 3 (75)

25.36 0.00

Less than 5000 4 (22.2) 14 (77.8)

5000 - 10,000 21 (37.5) 35 (62.5)

11,000 - 15,000 20 (36.4) 35 (63.6)

16,000 - 20,000 26 (34.7) 49 (65.3)

Average mont h l y income

Above 20,000 170 (57.4) 126 (42.6)

26.12 0.00

Complete 76 (57.6) 56 (42.4)

Partial 111 (46.4) 128 (53.6)

Expenses afforded by women at

home Free will 54 ( 41 .9) 75 (58.1)

7.01 0.03

Monthly earning level of women alters women independence

in decision making as cited in Tables 2-4 women getting higher

salaries exercise greater control. Higher salaried women worker

enjoy more independence. Present study confirms this with sta-

tistical significance. Women who are responsible to support

complete fi nancial burden of family are more li kely to be auto-

nomous in managing financial decisions independently as well

as expressing their ideas with their family members freely

whereas those who support family partially or on free will ex-

ercise little independence in decision making.

Conclusion

Present study investigated the role of women in family & so-

ciety which is changing but still women of rural area and those

having low salaries are vulnerable to be subordinate to husband

& other family members, and structure of family is strong indi-

cator of deciding women’s position in household and in society.

Along with these factors women who support financial burden

of family are more likely to be free to express their ideas. To

the best of our knowledge, this is first time study on particular

issue in Muzaffarabad Azad Kashmir.

Recommendation

As investigated from the study, it is dire need of time to fo-

cus attention toward empowerment of women of rural area as

rural women is victimized in all of above said decisions. Along

with educating women at individual level, this is equally im-

portant to educate husband & other members of family regard-

ing role of women because women living in joint & extended

families still rely on husband and other family members about

decisions on reproductive health and others. In secondary and

higher level schooling, there should be certain training sessions

for female students regarding their role & autonomy in decision

making.

REFERENCES

Ahmmed, M., & Chakraborty, N. (2012). Women’s status and early

childhood mortality in bangladesh.

http://maternalhealthtaskforce.org/component/docman/doc_view/133

3-women-s-status-and-earlychildhood-mortality-in-bangladesh?Itemi

d=220

Ali, W., Ishaque, M. F., Saima, A., & Yasin, G. (2010). Cultural barri-

ers in women empowerment: A sociological analysis of Multan,

Pakistan. European Journal of Social Sciences, 18, 147-155.

Dixon, R. B. (1978). Rural women at work: Strategies for development

in South Asia. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Un i v e rsity Press.

Dyson, T., & Moore, M. (1983). On kinship structure, female autonomy,

and demographic behaviour in India. Population and Development

Review, 9, 35-60. doi:10.2307/1972894

Furuta, M., & Salway, S. (2006). Women’s position within the house-

170

S. AROOJ ET AL.

hold as a determinant of maternal health care use in Nepal. Interna-

tional Family Planning Perspectives, 32, 17-27.

doi:10.1363/3201706

Heer, D. M. (1958). Dominance and working wife. Social Forces, 36,

34. doi:10.2307/2573973

Jejeebhoy, S. J., & Sathar, Z. A. (2001). Women’s autonomy in India

and Pakistan: The influence of religion and region. Population and

Development Review, 27, 687-712.

doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2001.00687.x

Jensen, R. (2012). Do labor market opportunities affect young women’s

work and family decisions? Experimental evidence from India. The

Quarterly Journal of Economics, 127, 753-792.

doi:10.1093/qje/qjs002

Kazi, & Shahnaz (1999). Gender inequalities and development in Paki-

stan. In S. R. Khan (Ed.), 50 years of pakistan’s economy: Tradi-

tional topics and contemporary concerns (pp. 376-414). Karachi:

Oxford University Press.

Mumtaz, Z., & Salway, S. M. (2007). Gender, pregnancy and the up-

take of antenatal care services in Pakistan. Sociology of Health &

Illness, 29, 1-26. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9566.2007.00519.x

Roth, D. M., & Mbzyo, M. I. (2001). Promoting safe motherhoodin the

community. New Delhi: Reproductive Health.

Saima, H., Stephenson, R., & Rubenson, B. (2011). Marriage decision

making, spousal communication, and reproductive health among

married youth in Pakistan . Global Health A ction, 4, 5079.

Saleem, S., & Bobak, M. (2005). Women’s autonomy, education and

contraception use in Pakistan: A national study. Reproductive Health,

2, 8. doi:10.1186/1742-4755-2-8

Sanjoy, K. C., Howlader, H., & Nahar, N. (2012). Educational status of

the married women and their participation at household decision

making in rural Bangladesh. International Journal of Advancements

in Research & Technology, 1, 137-146.

Standing, H. (1991). Dependence and autonomy: Women’s employment

and the family in Calcutta. London and N e w Y o rk: Routledge.