Creativity and Education

doi:10.4236/ce.2010.13026

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Creative Education

2010. Vol.1, No.3, 166-169

Creativity and Education

Robina Shaheen

School of Education, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.

Email: [email protected]

Received July 9th, 2010; revised September 1st, 2010; accepted September 21st, 2010.

This paper starts with a brief background of the link between creativity and education, including the beginning

of the most recent interest in the two. There is a short summary of the reasons for this renewed interest. This is

followed by a discussion into the dissatisfactions over current education and its changing role in the light of in-

creasing importance being accorded to creativity. Lastly, evidence in educational policy documents from around

the world is presented to show the steps being taken for implementation of creativity in education.

Keywords: Creativity, Primary Education, Policy, Curriculum, Developing Countries

The Link between Creativity and Education

Although the interest in creativity goes back to Plato’s age

(Cropley, 2004) and is found in the Greek, Judaic, Christian

and Muslim traditions, (Craft, 2001) renewed policy interest

came about with the launch of satellite, “Sputnik 1”, by the

Soviet Union in 1957. The purported failure of the engineers

from Europe, USA and other Western countries was attributed

to their lack of creativity which led to the National Defense

Education Act (USA) to accept the concept as important for

“prosperity…survival of society” (Esquivel, 1995). Since this

there have been several “waves of creativity in education”

(Wi lson, 2005). The latest interest, however, began in the late

90’s (Je ffrey, 2005) and has since been growing (Tur ner-Bi s s et ,

2007) throughout the world, including countries such as the

USA and UK (S hal l c r oss, 1981; Feldman et al, 2006). Policy-

makers have shown more sustained enthusiasm than previously

(Craft, 2006), which has added to its popularity as a topic of

debate (Dickhut, 2003) moving it from the “fringes of educa-

tion…to being seen as a core aspect of educating” (Craft ,

2005).

Fostering creativity in education is intended to address many

concerns. As a summary, this includes dealing with ambiguous

problems, coping with the fast changing world and facing an

uncertain future ( Parkhurst, 1999). Perhaps the most dominant

current argument for policy is the economic one. The role of

creativity in the economy is being seen as crucial (Burnard,

2006) to assist nations for attaining higher employment, eco-

nomic achievement (Davies, 2002) and to cope with increased

competition. It is for this reason that creativity cannot be “ig-

nored or suppressed through schooling” (Pool e, 1980) or its

development be left to “chance and mythology” (NESTA,

2002). It is predominantly for this reason that there is a call for

its inclusion in education as a “fundamental life skill” (Craft,

1999) which needs to be developed to prepare future genera-

tions (Parkhurst, 1999) so that they can “survive as well as

thrive in the twenty-first century” (Parkhurst, 2006). Develop-

ing children’s creativity during their years in education is the

start of building “human capital” upon which, according to

Adam Smith and successive commentators, depends the

“wealth of nations” (Wal berg, 1988).

Changing role of Educ ation

Formal education “represents both a right and need” (Ca rno y,

2004) but it has time and time again been criticized for turning

out “conform i sts ” and “ster eotypes” rather than “freely creative

and original thinkers” (Rogers, 1970). The role of education

institutions has been questioned (Craft , 1999) and blamed for

“spoon feeding” (Parnes, 1970) and “killing” crea t i vity (Kaila,

2005). The increased pressures to gear education towards the

“3 R’s” and meeting the requirements of national curriculum,

inspections and monitoring has led to the feeling, for some, that

cr e ativity in teaching and learning has ceased to exist and this

will prevent governments from achieving a “cre ative society”

(Gr a i nge r , 2004). One of the reasons why education systems

have been regarded as barriers to developing and “releasing

creative potential in the economy” is that the teaching focuses

on “knowledge acquisition” (Da vie s , 2002). Knowledge, as an

outcome of education is said to be no longer sufficient (Scof f-

ham, 2003; Gui lford, 1975). This is because it is difficult to

know what knowledge will be needed in the future (Par ne s ,

1970).

If nations are to respond to “economic needs” (Craft, 2005)

they need to produce an “educated workforce.” Inevitably, this

requires a rise in the level of educational achievement (Jeffrey,

2006). But what are being considered as criteria of educational

achievement are said to be changing (Wil son , 2005) and being

“re conceptualized…[to] encompass creativity” (Craft, 2001). In

the light of this, education systems are being required to un-

dergo “a major overhaul in resources, attitude and understand-

ing” so that creativity can be valued (T urne r-Bisset, 2007). As

a response to such calls there has been a shift in educational

policy around the world and efforts are being made to combine

creativity and knowledge (Dickhut, 2003). Creativity is being

made the focus of “curri culum and pedagogy” (Wi lson , 2005)

and an “official agenda” for improving schools (B urnard,

2006).

Schools are being seen as places for the encouragement of

creativity because they can do this in a “more efficient” manner

and can develop it “not merely in elites but in masses of stu-

dents” (Wal berg, 1988). In fact it is being said that creativity

needs to be “fostered by the education system(s) from the early

R. SHAH EEN

167

years onward” (Craft , 1999) and that elementary and secondary

education may be more important than university education for

“national prosperity and welfare” (Wa lbe r g, 1988). Primary

education is being seen as:

...a critical stage in children’s development – it shapes them

for life. As well as giving them the essential tools for learning,

primary education is about children experiencing the joy of

discovery, solving problems, being creative in writing, art,

music, developing their self-confidence as learners and matur-

ing socially and emotionally (DCSF, 2003).

The Inclusion of Creativity Within Edu cat i on

The inclusion of creativity into educational policy documents

is evidence of the fact that the focus on creativity is not merely

a matter of paying “lip service” to the concept (Csikszentmi-

halyi, 1996; Hus s ain, 2004) but rather action is being taken.

O’Donnell and Micklethwaite (O’Donnell, 1999) reviewed the

curriculum documents of 16 (developed) countries, (American,

European and East Asian), identifying the place of arts and

creativity in education. They found that creativity was included

at various educational levels, at least from early years through

primary education for most countries and beyond, up to higher

education, for some.

In Canada “creative thinking” is outlined as one of the

common essential learning(s) (p.8). In Kentucky, USA, one of

the learning goals is to enable students to “use creative thinking

skills to develop or invent novel, constructive ideas or prod-

ucts” (p.57). In Korea the National Curriculum defines an edu-

cated person as “healthy, independent, creative and moral”

(p.33). In Sweden the Government’s National Development

Plan for Pre-School, School and Adult Education (1997) stated

that education should provide “the conditions for developing

creative skills” (p.52). In France schools in lower secondary are

expected to develop in children the “taste for creation.” (p.14).

In Germany, the emphasis of primary education is placed on

developing “children’s creative abilities” (p.20). In Netherlands

one of the principles on which primary education is based is

“creative development” (O’Donnell & Micklethwaite 1999,

p.38). In Florida (USA) one of the goals of restructuring the

schools was to provide students opportunities “to learn and

apply strategies for creative…thinking” (T reffinger, 1996). The

second educational goal for young people in Australia is to:

…become successful learners, confident and creative indi-

viduals, and active and informed citizens (ACARA, 2009).

In Japan the school curriculum has included development of

creativity since the Second World War. The Japanese National

Council on Educational Reform (NCER) has outlined the de-

velopment of creativity as the most important objective of edu-

cation for 21st century (O’Donne ll, 1999). In Singapore the aim

of new initiatives, launched by the Ministry if Education, was

to foster, “enquiring minds, the ability to think critically and

creatively” (O’Donnell , 19990). These initiatives included the

“Thinking Schools, Learning Nation” (TSLN) program (Tan ,

2006) designed to develop thinking skills and creativity in stu-

dents. This was in response to leading industrialists and entre-

preneurs indicating that staff in Singapore was more “con-

for m ing ” than ‘independent” and “not curious enough” (Tan ,

2006). The Singapore Ministry of Education website states that

they expect of their young to “be creative and imaginative”

(MOE, 2009). According to Singapore’s primary curriculum

creativity is amongst the eight core skills and values (INCA,

2009).

In China creativity has become an important component of

education since 2001 and its development has become a “prior-

ity” (Vong , 2008). In Hong Kong the education policy proposal

includes creativity as “higher order thinking skills”. There are

educational reforms being carried in preschool, primary and

secondary education in which development of creativity is be-

ing given a “top priority” (Fryer, 2003). In Turkish education

the concept of creativity is being discussed more and more,

however attempts to enhance it through education are limited

(Or al, 2008). In Ireland a strategy paper was developed called

“Unlocking Creativity” for developing creativity and education

(Robinson , 2001). In the Cultural Policy Statement by the Scot-

tish Executive the Minister for Tourism, Culture and Sport

spelt out his “visi on ” regarding creativity, in that:

Our devolved government should have the courage and the

faith to back human imagination, our innate creativity, as the

most potent force for individual change and social vision. I

believe we should make the development of our creative drive

the next major enterprise for our society...I believe this has the

potential to be a new civic exercise on a par with health, hous-

ing and education – the commitment to providing and valuing

creative expression for all.

The Policy Statement goes on to say tha t :

The creativity of Scots – from the classroom to the board-

room – is the edge we need in a competitive world. Our duty as

an Executive is to create the conditions that allow that creativ-

ity to flourish – whether in arts, sciences, commerce or industry.

Creativity is as valuable in retail, education, health, government

and business as in culture. The cultural sector should become

the national dynamo of the creative impulse that can serve all

these areas (Scottish Executive, 2004).

Scotland is one of four home countries in the UK. In the

1990’s a number of policy documents and statements emerged

for UK home countries which included creativity (Craft , 2001).

In 1997 the White Paper, Excellence in Schools, referred to

preparing people for the 21st century by recognizing their “di f-

ferent talents”. This was built upon by another report by the

National Advisory Committee on Creative and Cultural Educa-

tion (NACCCE, 1999) which spoke of equipping young child-

ren with skills required by employees (Craft, 2005). The

NACCCE report acknowledged the UK government’s views

that creativity “was relevant to schools” (Jeffrey, 2005). This

increased interest in the topic, bringing it back “on the agenda

in a big way” (Brundrett, 2007). These mentioned documents

provided the “foundation” for the recent policy discussions

(Cr aft, 2005) in which the British Government responded to

“debates about creative...education to meet the economic,

technological and social challenges of the 21st century” (Love-

l e ss , 2002).

Another document which called for creativity in primary

education was the National Primary Strategy for primary

schools, Excellence and Enjoyment, (Hayes, 2004). The Office

for Standards in Education (Ofsted) published this report in

2003 and in this they identified creativity as “a significant fac-

tor in educational experience” (Jeffrey, 2005). This document,

it is said, added a “conv i c t ion” that it is time for “a new, more

creative approach to curriculum planning and a greater empha-

R. SHAH EEN

168

sis on creativity for learning” (NCSL, 2004). There were also

literature reviews on creativity supported by the Qualification

and Curriculum Authority (QCA) and reports on the national

Curriculum as well as a “criteria” for ensuring creativity was

included in every subject (Jeffrey, 2005; Turne r-Bisset , 2007).

A website was established under the name of “Creativity: Find

it! Promote it!” to enable teachers to find and promote creativi-

ty in the classroom (Burnard, 2006).

Creativity has become a focus in the curriculum as evident in

its inclusion in the Foundation Stage Curriculum and National

Curriculum for schools in England (Talboys, 2004; Cra ft,

2003). On the website for the National Curriculum, Key Stage

1 and 2, there is a section on creativity which includes informa-

tion on:

• What is creativity?

• Wh y is creativity important?

• How you can spot creativity?

• How can teachers promote creativity?

• How can heads and managers promote creativity?

(QCDA, 2009)

In the National Curriculum itself Aim One is that the school

should:

Enable pupils to think creatively and critically, to solve

problems and to make a difference for the better. It should give

them the opportunity to become creative, innovative, and en-

terprising (QCDA, 2009).

The National Curriculum outlines six “key skills” and

a mong st these is “thinking skills”. Included in this is “creative

thinking” which it is said “enable pupils to generate and extend

ideas, to suggest hypotheses, to apply imagination, and to look

for alternative innovative outcomes” (QCDA, 1999). This is

regarded as one of the skills which are “universal” and “em-

bedded in the subjects of the National Curriculum and are es-

sential to effective learning.” As an example of inclusion of

creativity in the subjects it is stated in the science curriculum

that:

Science stimulates and excites pupils’ curiosity about phe-

nomenon and events around in the world around them. It satis-

fies this curiosity with knowledge. Because science links direct

practical experience with ideas, it can engage learners at many

levels. Scientific method is about developing and evaluating

explanations, through experimental evidence and modeling.

This is a spur to critical and creative thought (QCDA, 1999).

There has also been investment in staff development and

creating teaching resources. The UK government has moved

beyond policy level work to initiate projects to provide and

enhance “creative experiences” (Loveless, 2002) to learners by

establishing projects under the “Creative Partnerships” schemes

(Hayes, 2004). In this the schools are provided with opportuni-

ties to work with organizations such as dance studios and film

makers through partnerships (Jeffrey, 2005). These efforts and

“massive investments” have brought creativity to the forefront

(Fel dma n, 2006).

Conclusion

It appears from what has been documented in the literature

that the recent upsurge in creativity and education has taken

place in European, American, Australian and East Asian coun-

tries, as reflected in their policy documents. This is further

evidenced by the fact that some have stated that creativity has

come to be seen as “key to economic competitiveness in ad-

vanced economies” (highlighted by researcher) (NESTA, 2002)

implying that this is not so the case in less advanced economies.

In referring to Tony Blair, (the former British Prime Minister),

who it is reported “couples creativity in education to the future

needs of the national economy” Gibson says that in this “the

assumption…is that the production of a new, adaptive work

force...is the sole way forward if Western economies, (hi g-

hlighted by researcher), are to remain buoyant in future global

contexts” (Gi bson, 2005). Does this then mean that developing

or non-western countries do not want to economically compete,

do not need a new type of labor force, do not face any of the

problems indicated, all of which, as it has already been argued,

require creativity. In this Oral is of the view that:

For many developing countries, creativity remains neglected,

whereas in developed countries, educational philosophy and

goals rely on student’s enhancement of creativity and self-ac-

tualization…For developing countries, integration of creative

thinking skills in…education is a crucial need for shaping their

future orientations and actualizing reforms in political, eco-

nomic and cultural areas (Oral, 2006).

Sinl arat, speaking of Asian countries, is of the view that the

Asians are “consumers ” of Western products. This has resulted

in loss of “se l f-identity” “sel f -independence” and “prosperity”.

He goes onto say that in order to overcome the dependency

there is a need for Asians to become “creative and productive

persons” and in this “education that yields creativity and prod-

uctivity is essential for Asia”. It is suggested that rather than

taking what UNESCO states should be taught:

Learning how to learn

Learning how to do

Learning how to work together

Learning how to be

The following characteristics must be produced in people:

Learning how to learn critically

Learning how to do creatively

Learning how to work constructively

Learning how to be wise

It is said that:

Educational process primarily needs to set a target on new

thinking and creativity for it to make education have the real

effect on the society...Asia must adapt itself to be free, must

have the advanced and creative way of life and must be able to

give a push in the direction of globalization. These will happen

when Asian education and society develop into truly creative

and productive society and when Asia resists adopting ideas

and copying knowledge from other countries as is the present

case (Sinlarat, 2002).

To say for certain what Asian countries are doing regarding

creativity and education and what they may need to do there is

need for further research. Only by taking this approach will it

be possible to say for sure that creativity is actually a “world-

wide phenomenon” (B oyd, 2009) and the need for it in educa-

tion is being recognized globally to solve the current problems

facing societies.

This paper has outlined the various arguments given in lite-

rature for the need to couple creativity and education. Also

included has been the evidence from policy documents from

various countries to indicate that practical steps are being taken

to make creativity part of the educational agenda.

R. SHAH EEN

169

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