Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), Conflict and Peace Building in Nigeria

doi:10.4236/ojpp.2013.31A034

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Open Journal of Philosophy

2013. Vol.3, No.1A, 207-212

Published Online February 2013 in SciRes (http://www.scirp.org/journal/ojpp) http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojpp.2013.31A034

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs),

Conflict and Peace Building in Nigeria

Anthonia O. Uzuegbunam

Public Administration and Local Government, University of Nigeira, Nsukka, Nigeria

Email: [email protected]

Received September 5th, 2012; revise d Octobe r 6th, 2012; accepted October 20th, 2012

Despite some efforts by the government, corporate bodies, civil society, national universities commission

etc to reduce situations of conflict in Nigeria, peace is still elusive to her and consequently to sustainable

development. This paper thus aims at an in-dept description of NGOs, conflict and peace building and

proffering a way forward to reduce conflict situations through NGOs. Content analysis, was adopted, us-

ing the secondary sources of collecting data from books, journals and articles. NGOs are an aspect of civil

society, without government representation, embarking in conflict reduction, welfare scheme, empower-

ment and employment. Among the recommendations are: government recognition and support of NGOs;

NGOs increased and effective performance and government/NGOs partnership in peace and conflict is-

sues.

Keywords: Government; Organizations; Conflict and Peace Building

Introduction

The prime value in contemporary Nigeria today is peace. It is

the most valuable public good, but yet the most elusive (Francis

David, 2006). The three (3) years of civil war and the recent

disturbances in various parts of the country, namely the Niger

Delta regions of the South-South, the Jos Bauchi Regions of

Bauchi and Platue States and the Ebonyi States of the South-

East States are at different levels of intensity and peace settle-

ment. These have wrecked devastating effects on Nigeria in

terms of considerable loss of human life, human suffering, the

destruction of infrastructural facilities, the disruption of eco-

nomic and agricultural activities and the coming anarchy that

threatens not only the Nigeria internal peace and security but

also internal peace in Africa and beyond. Alarmingly most of

these areas of conflict lack the political will to maintain past

peace agreements and have fallen prey to continuous armed

clicks and ethnic conflict (Monty Marshal, 2003). Peace has

therefore become the most pressing challenge faced by Africa

at large and Nigeria in particular. This situation is partly due to

unwholesome merger of multi-ethnic people by the colonial

masters and partly as a result of ineffective conflict manage-

ment. Despite some efforts by the government, corporate bodies,

civil society, national universities commission etc to reduce

situations of conflict in Nigeria, peace has continued to elude

Nigeria and consequently sustainable development.

Be that as it may, this work aimed at X-raying the place of

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in conflict and peace

building in Nigeria and proffering a way forward to peace

building in Nigeria. The work was therefore discussed under

the following sections:

 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs);

 Conflicts in Nigeria;

 NGOs in Conflict and Peace Building in Nigeria;

 The way forward.

Theoretical Base

The theoretical approach to this study of Non Governmental

Organizations (NGOs) Conflict and peace building in Nigeria is

“African Theistic Humanism” propounded by Dukor, (2010).

Dukor used this idea in discussing and analyzing any global

issue from African philosophy or world view. African theistic

humanism from philosophical perspective explains the fact that

Africans originally have their own way of thinking, reacting or

acting in any situation and towards any issue in life. This be-

havior is governed by the principle that the mother earth is

always there to prescribe or proscribe for people and as such

respect and compliance are required. These considerations it is

believed, facilitate success, progress and solutions to problems.

For instance, in Dukor’s analysis of African culture and Nigeria

in particular, every ethnic group has sets of values, namely

moral normative and non-moral normative values. The former

concerns ethical values like obligation, duty, right, wrong, de-

sirable, undesirable, etc., while the later concerns cultural envi-

ronment, poetry, agriculture unlike Islamic world with common

values and law, the Africans cultural values are varied as there

are variations in ethnic groups. Consequently, Dukor (2012: pp.

15-16), emphasized that African philosophy in terms of values

and common law has to be placed in proper perspective. These

values, Dukor referred to as “Theistic Humanism”. Further, this

was summed up in a diagram with kinship at the apex, followed

by extended family, communitarianism, social values, ethical

values, etc. see Figure 1.

 Applying this to the analysis of Non Governmental Or-

ganizations (NGOs) Conflict and Peace Building in Nigeria,

we tend to focus on what the society values. It is this

thought that reveald to the analysits the nature and type of

values that are existential and experienced therein. Any ne-

gation or violation of these values breeds disagreement, dis-

order and consequently conflict. Africans have communal

A. O. UZUEGBUNAM

Figure 1.

The African cultural values are varied as there are variations in ethnic groups. In placing African

philosophy in terms of values and common law, Dukor, (2012) referred to life existence as “Theis-

tic Humanism”. This was illustrated in the above figure. The figure shows that theistic humanism

gave rise to two broad groups of values namely; Community values and Aesthetical values,

marked “(A)” and “(B)”. From (A)—community value, we derived kinship, at the apex, extended

family, communitarianism, social values and ethical values. (B)—from Aesthetic values, we de-

rived food and work habit for celebration of life, followed by Agric and Archeological values, mu-

sic and artistic values.

life, enjoy communal peace and also solve communal prob-

lems communally.

Against this back drop the analysis of NGOs Conflict and

Peace Building in Nigeria was examined.

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

A Non-Governmental Organization (NGO), an aspect of

civil society, is a legally constituted non-state organization

created by natural or legal persons. It has no participation or

representation of any government. Even in cases where NGOs

are funded totally or partially by governments, they still main-

tain their non-governmental status by excluding government

representatives from their membership. Though, NGO is legally

constituted and is in general use, no legal definition is assigned

to it. In many jurisdictions, NGO is defined as a civil society

organization or as any other names like independent sector,

social movement organization, private voluntary organization,

volunteer sector, self-help organization and non-state actors,

(Anheier et al., 2001).

Historically, the beginning of national NGOs started from

antiquity. The international non-governmental organizations

have a history dating back to at least 1839. For instance, Rotary

international was founded in 1905. It has been estimated that in

1914 there were 1083 NGOs. These international NGOs were

quite helpful in the antislavery moment and at the movement

for women’s suffrage, which reached its peak at the time of the

world disarmament conference. However, the phrase “non-

governmental organization” only came into popular use with

the establishment of the United Nations Organization in 1945

with the Article 71 of chapter 10 provision made by the United

Nations chapter. This is where the cumulative status of non-

governmental organization was derived. The definition of “In-

ternational Non-Governmental Organization (INGO)” was first

issued in resolution 288 (x) of ECOSOC on February 27, 1950.

Any international organization not founded by an international

treaty was then referred to as an international non-governmental

organization. The vital role of NGOs and other “major groups”

in sustainable development was recognized in chapter 27 of

Agenda 21, that led to intense arrangements for a consultative

relationship between the United Nations and Non-Governmen-

tal Organizations (NGOS), (Burton, 1997). Again, globalization

of the 20th century strengthened the importance of NGOs as

many problems could not be solved within nations, (Pawel

Zaleski, 2006). The reason being that the international treaties

and international organizations like World Trade Organization

were understood as being too centered on the interests of capi-

talist enterprises. So in an attempt to balance this trend, NGOs

developed to emphasize humanitarian issues, developmental aid

and sustainable development. An outstanding example of this is

the World Social Forum as a rival of World Economic Forum

held annually in January at Davos, Switzerland. The 5th World

Social Forum held in Porto Alegue, Brazil in January, 2005 was

attended by more than 1000 NGOS representative (Abahlali,

2006). The arguments were that NGOs came as a result of wel-

fare state restructurization in western countries. NGOs take the

place of what belong to popular movements of the poor, NGOs

are often imperialist, sometimes operate in a radicalized manner

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in dominant countries and that they perform similar functions to

that of the clergy and so on. Whatever, the case may be, NGOs

transnational networking is currently extensive in many nations

of the world. Consequently, Nigeria operates many (Estimate of

2000 in number) NGOs based on the different problems in the

society, either as chapters of international NGOs or as local

NGOs. Examples include Women in Nigeria (WIN), Women’s

Health Issues in Nigeria, (WHERIN) Women Aid Collective

(WACOL).

Types of NGOs are discernable on the basis of their orienta-

tion and co-operation. NGO type by the level of orientation can

be charitable orientation, service orientation, participation ori-

entation and empowering orientation. NGO type by the level of

co-operation are seen to be community-based, city wide based,

national based and international based. Based on the above

understanding, the World Bank typologised NGOs into opera-

tional and advocacy. While the operational NGOs concentrate

on the design and implementation of development related pro-

jects, the advocacy NGOs focuse on defence and promotion of

specific courses. Operational NGOs in Nigeria are either relief

oriented or development oriented, service delivery or participa-

tory, religious or secular, public or private oriented and com-

munity-based, national or international. Advocacy NGOs in

Nigeria attempt as much as possible to raise awareness, accep-

tance and knowledge through lobbying, activist events and

presswork.

Methods of operation of NGOs differ from organization to

organization. For instance, those concerned with poverty alle-

viation may provide needy people with the equipment and skills

to find food and clean drinking water and those concerned with

human rights abuse may work through investigation and docu-

mentation of human rights violation by providing legal assis-

tance to victims of human rights abuse. In all their endeavours,

NGOs adopt public relations attitude, consulting power and

project management entrepreneurship and techniques for vi-

ability and effect iv eness.

Staffing of NGOs is not always issued on altruism. A few are

volunteers while a good many find themselves in NGOs so as

to have immediate benefits for themselves and for the people

they serve especially in acquiring skills, experience finances

and contacts. However the expertise of employees or volunteers

may be influenced by a number of factors namely the cost of

expatriate in the organization, grassroots connections, local

expertise etc. The NGO sector all over the world, is an impor-

tant employer in terms of numbers. For instance, the world

organizations on poverty alleviation, elimination and treatment

of communicable diseases, women affairs engage in employing

people across the world estimating the number to the tune of

1,000,000 as at 2007, (Stillman, 2007).

Sources of fund for NGOs include membership dues, the

sales of goods and services, grants from international and na-

tional governments, private donations etc.

Conflicts in Nigeria

Discussing conflicts in Nigeria may require us to situate the

clarification of the term “conflict”.

“A conflict is a situation between two or more people in

which one person perceives that another person has negatively

affected, or is about to negatively affect”, (Holmes, 2010: p. 8).

This definition contains three elements, all of which must be

present in order for a conflict to exist. First, there is a specific

perception on the part of one or more of the people involved in

the conflict, whether the perception is accurate or inaccurate, it

is held by the conflicting parties. Second, the perception is gen-

erally negative. One party believes the other is going to do

something of negative effect directly or indirectly. Finally, the

issue surrounding the conflict must be something both parties

care about. Conflict is also seen, as a strain in a relationship that

goes with emotion. The higher the emotion, the higher the ten-

dency of an evolving conflict intensity (Aja Akpuru Aja, 2007:

p. 12). Hence, to many scholars, conflict is inevitable in social

life process; for conflict occurs even in the best of human so-

cieties, (Sani Shehu, 2007: p. 12). Thus, we find conflict gradu-

ating into such phases like early conflict indicators, conflict

resistance, explosive or exhausitive conflict and the most

deadly spiral and the highest level of violence. Again, conflict

can be a frustration-based attitude or protest against lack of

opportunities for development and against lack of recognition

and identity. Conflict can therefore originate in class, status,

ethnicity, sex, religion, nationalism or resource control, yet

same fundamental issues are being addressed.

The foregoing led us to postulate that conflict has both nega-

tive and positive underpinnings. It is considered negative when

it is a setback, destructive and disintegrative. Conflict is con-

sidered positive when it leads to positive developments for the

individuals, the groups and the society at large through correc-

tive signal or warning. It also leads to integrative process of

development. However, change is the real subject of conflict

whether in its negative or positive form. Thus, it requires the

need to tailor it towards the support of existing norms and rules

of social existence for if conflict of any form is left uncon-

trolled, the situation may be counterproductive.

Other related concepts of conflicts, include conflict indica-

tors, conflict prevention, conflict trigger, conflict resistance,

conflict explosion, conflict dynamics, conflict intervention, con-

flict analysis, conflict resolution, conflict management, conflict

reduction, conflict stability, conflict transformation, conflict

suppression and identity conflict. Conflict indicators refer to the

idea that conflict is no automatic imposition. It does not just

occur in any given situation. It does not happen without signs.

If action is taken immediately there is any sign, the damage is

prevented or limited. Conflict prevention is a process of con-

trolling and managing strained relationship early enough to

avoid the threats of a conflict. It makes effective use of early

warning system to detect and respond to early threats. Conflict

trigger refers to provocative utterances, decisions or actions that

suddenly give rise to an outburst of frustration or aggression

through open violence. This is most often associated with arm-

ed conflict, mass murder, genocide against defenceless or un-

suspected civilians. Thus, hardly do we have automatic vio-

lence without a particular trigger on the moment of aggression.

Conflict resistance connotes a protracted conflict situation

that has long been endured. In Nigeria and African societies,

many cases of conflict resistance abound. Conflict explosion

means heightened level of violence. This kind of conflict situa-

tion fails to observe the sacredness of life liberty and property

and as such extreme use of arms of demonize and dehumanize

human nature. Example of this conflict explosion is terrorism

where people are involved in engaging in killing, destroying

their targets and dying for their faith. Such actions include

rampant suicide bombing in the Middle East, Iran, Iraq, Syria,

Isreal and Lebanon. Terrorism and its activities are frequently

experienced in advanced countries of Britain and USA, Sep-

A. O. UZUEGBUNAM

tember 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the USA has remained the

highest display of conflict explosion. Terrorism activities also

exist in African countries leadership like Abacha Obasanjo and

Yar Adua extreme violence in Nigeria, Mobutu in Zarie, Mug-

abe in Zimbabwe, Idi Amini in Uganda and recent Sudanese

and Syria leadership. Conflict dynamics is in form of conflict

analysis using the factors like history of the relationship, the

primary and secondary actors, the structures (factional goals,

attitudes and behaviour), the intensity (low, moderate or ex-

treme), strategies adopted by conflicting parties, pattern of re-

gime responses and facilitators of conflict transformers.

Conflict resolution is the process of systematizing intelli-

gence and strategies on “dos” and “don’ts”. So as to enhance

their capacity building in favour of bargaining, negotiation,

mediation, conciliation and arbitration, (Miall et al., 1999: p. 2).

Conflict resolution is to help parties develop common, norms,

rules and regulations on utterance, attitudes, actions and hopes

to give peace a chance. No readymade “conflict resolution for

any conflict case. It differs from conflict case to another. Con-

flict management refers to the open and clear dialogue in as-

sisting opponents to develop agreement against hostile images

or actions, but compliance to agreed resolution and strategies.

Conflict management operates as a drive from conflict resolu-

tion. Conflict management is where the two parties concerned

share the same ideas, principles in their capacity to make peace

reign. The third party involvement can be from states or “re-

gimes” multilateral actors initiatives and non-governmental or-

ganization initiative. Conflict stability is also known as crisis

stability which means a condition whereby each party perceives

parity in an overall balance of military power. It tends to serve

as deterrence t hat helps to restore peace.

Conflict transformation refers to the state of new situation

involving conflict issues, perceptions, relationships and com-

munication patterns. It is a change initiated by a third party for

readjusting the emotional, perceptual and spiritual approaches

to a conflict situation. Conflict suppression of a sub-concept of

conflict transformation, positive oriented that enables interven-

ers to work hard in the direction of positive change.

Conflict identity refers to the environment of the individuals

involved in the conflict. e.g., Ethnic identities, kinship groups

necessary for development of out-groups and in groups. This is

the issue that breeds the “us’ and “them” syndrome. In multi-

linguistic societies like Nigeria. Ethnic problems emerge as a

result of competition of the following:

 control of state power;

 different development plans;

 educational controversies;

 resources control struggles;

 religions intolerance;

 land disputes;

 indigene-settle syndrome (migration and compete con-

quest).

These differences in issues become entangled in themselves

and cause ethno-national to manage or resolve. This penetrates

the very fabric of society and engenders living misunderstand-

ing among groups within nations.

Examples of Cases of Confl i c ts in Ni geria

Cases of conflict situations abound in Nigeria right from pre-

colonial period till date. Examples of these conflicts include the

following among others :

 Nigeria-Biafra Civil War (1967-1970);

 The Inter-Communal Conflicts like Zango-Kataf Crisis

(1992);

 Ife-Modakeke political and religion crises (pre-colonial to

date);

 Aguleri-Umuleri conflicts (since 1933);

 Religious conflicts in Kano State;

 Religious conflicts in Kaduna State;

 Social and Political Motivated Federal Election Crises of

1964;

 National Census Controversy of 1962;

 Western Nigeria Election Crises of 1965;

 Niger Delta crises in Ogoni, Ijaw and Warri.

However, apart from political and military issues mentioned

above, potential causes of conflicts in Nigeria have increased

and diversified to a large extent. These causes include recruit-

ing ground for international terrorist networks, organized crime,

drug traffickers, new tensions created by refugees across bor-

ders and state failure to cater for the citizens and those in spe-

cial needs.

The Concept of Peace Building

Peace building is the identification and support of measures

needed for transformation toward more sustainable, peaceful

relationship and structures of governance, so as to avoid a re-

lapse into conflict, (UN, 2007). Peace building is also perceived

as attempts to conquer the structural, relational and cultural

contradictions hastily causing conflict, especially in strong

support of peace making and peacekeeping. Inspirations of

peace building are drawn from developmental imperatives fac-

ing mankind and conflict resolution initiatives, (Ifesinachi,

2009). Again efforts of peace building may be imported from

outside the system thereby overlooking the structures and cul-

tures of the parties concerned. The approach to the efforts of

peace building could be bottom-top and or top-bottom. Which-

ever base the efforts are directed to, the end results must be in

respect, promotion and use of local human and socio-cultural

resources. Peace building has assumed such a prominent posi-

tion in the minds of the international community members and

all peace lovers in the world. Hence the call for every one to

contribute in making peace a reality. Thus, the United Nations

(UN) security council installed peace building as its number 2

point agreement under the provision of chapter VI of the UN

charter.

The Role of NGOs in Conflict and Peace

Building in Nigeria

It is an understatement to state that the aim or purpose of

peace building is to prevent conflict and create peace. A sug-

gestion was made that peace has two different concepts—nega-

tive peace and positive peace. Negative peace refers to mere

absence of violence, but positive peace is said to be a stable

social equilibrium in which the surfacing of new disputes can-

not escalate into violence and war (Henning, 1998). The em-

phasis on finding and resolving the root causes of conflict is

criticized on the grounds that it is an overtly negative view of

social conflict. Conflict may contribute to a dynamic and inno-

vative society once it is not violence. Since it is increasingly

acknowledged that social conflict is inevitable, some ap-

proaches to peace building have shifted the emphasis from the

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root causes of social conflict to good governance and peaceful

settlement of dispute mechanisms.

In conflict resolution, NGOs embark on problem solving

workshops and seminars aimed at internal conflicts like the

religious crises in Kano and Kaduna states, Bauchi and Plateau

States, Enugu-Ezike crises in Enugu State where especially the

women groups had series of meetings resulting in the follow-

ing:

1) Deciding to engage in dialogue to resolve mutually intol-

erable problems;

2) Coming together to map the elements of the problems and

the relationship that perpetuate the problems;

3) Uncovering the underlying dynamic of the relationships

and beginning to see ways to change them;

4) Planning steps together to change the relationships and;

5) Devising ways to implement their plan.

Indeed what conflict resolution offers is more than enough

theoretical and practical ways of developing peace in conflict

environments. These can be exploited at several levels so as to

channel global, regional and national norms of interdependence,

human security and democratization into unstable local envi-

ronments. It is therefore in, this situation that NGOs contribu-

tion to the process of conflict resolution is very critical. NGOs

play the role of facilitating a linkage between global, regional

and organization, thereby resolving one of the most serious

problems of the conflict resolution genre related to the trickle-

up and down effect of conflict, (Henning, 1998). This is be-

cause NGOs conduct humanitarian, developmental, human

rights, and conflict resolution activities that enhance the process

of peace making.

NGOs place in peace-building in society cannot be over em-

phasized. The inadequacies of first generation approaches to

conflict resolution both nationally and globally has called for

settlements to be based upon just political orders that promote

democracy and human rights, new norms, participatory gov-

ernance structures, civil society, international tribunals and

truth commissions. Thus, under the auspices of the United Na-

tion (UN), disarming, repatriating refugees, building a consen-

sus for peace and moderate local political leadership appear to

be important issues in building peace. Since this is based on

conflict resolution and perspectives of conflict, it requires deep

access into local environments and grassroots processes rather

than top-down approaches. Thus NGOs can always provide

these conditions as a result of their official and human security

oriented base.

Conclusion

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) are doing even

more peace building activities than any official governmental

agencies. In many of the areas of the world at large and in Ni-

geria in particular, they have a long term presence that are af-

flicted with intractable conflicts. NGOs are in an excellent po-

sition to engage in a wide variety of peace building activities.

Added to the process of providing humanitarian aid and media-

tion, they are also well positioned to engage in empowerment

and capacity building among the local population in getting

them involved with the adversary in a variety of joint activities.

In accordance with official government peace building efforts,

the goal NGO efforts is usually conflict reduction and/or reso-

lution, not just between official actors but also among ordinary

citizen.

Again, much peace building efforts especially peace church

members like Christian union, Christian women group try to

foster reconciliation through apology, prayer and forgiveness.

Some other organizations work for mutual understanding and

prejudiced reduction. This is pursued through development of

joint projects and confidence building activities involving op-

ponents, at the grassroots level. Even though their projects and

strategies vary, they all encourage increased contact and co-

operation between people on all sides of the conflict.

Conflict and peace building exist in literature. Nonetheless,

most opinions accepted that conflict involves disagreement,

frictions, and misunderstanding, violent and non-violent, in the

course of relationship with others or with innerself. Peace

building actions to create and sustain peace results in all its

ramifications are also available.

The Way Forward

As a way for improvement of the performance of NGOs in

conflict and peace building in Nigeria, the following are rec-

ommended.

 NGOs should recognize that peace building is a political

undertaking rather than a development and humanitarian

one;

 Funding of NGOs from the local government should be

increased for effective performance of their responsibilities;

 Since the importance of NGOs in conflict resolution and

peace building has been recognized by the international

community, the Nigeria government should also recognize

NGOs important contributions towards the grassroots in-

volvement in peace building and accord them same;

 The NGOs should recognize the different phases of conflict

and ensure that each phase is effectively aligned with their

peace building activities;

 NGOs should embark on going into the communities to

teach them non violent conflict resolution;

 The NGOs members should be committed to the activities

for peace building and be honest in discharging their re-

sponsibilities;

 An integrated effort of NGOs with other civil organizations

requires effective partnership to yield better activities and

aggregate for a significant impact;

 Nigerians should recognize the importance of NGOs in

conflict resolutions and peace building in societies, and

therefore undertake researches on the activities of NGOs in

Nigeria for significant documentation.

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