Evidence that the Vinland Map Was Drawn Using an Iron Gall Ink: The Continuing Need for Further Research

doi:10.4236/aces.2012.24063

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Advances in Chemical Engineering and Science, 2012, 2, 514-518

http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/aces.2012.24063 Published Online October 2012 (http://www.SciRP.org/journal/aces)

Evidence that the Vinland Map Was Drawn Using an Iron

Gall Ink: The Continuing Need for Further Research

Jacqueline S. Olin

Great Falls, USA

Email: [email protected]

Received August 20, 2012; revised September 22, 2012; accepted October 3, 2012

ABSTRACT

The Vinland Map is a map of the world that shows “the island of Vinland” in the northwest Atlantic Ocean. It is housed

in the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University. The Map has been purported to date from the

Council of Basle, AD 1431 -1449. The nature of the ink of the Map has not been identified . It has been suggested that it

may be an iron gall in k, a carbon ink or an ink that con tains an atase and gelatin an d perhaps oth er unknown co nstituents.

This paper will present evidence that supports the ink being an iron gall ink. It is intended that this evidence will en-

courage further research.

Keywords: Iron Gall Ink; UV Examination of Iron Gall Ink; Iron Gall Ink Corrosion

1. Introduction

The controversy surrounding the Beinecke Library’s

Vinland Map was originally based on cartographic ques-

tions regarding whether it was possible that this map was

drawn at the time proposed by the authors of the Yale

University Press publication, The Vinland Map and the

Tartar Relation [1]. At the time of publication in 1965,

the proposal that the Map had been drawn in the first half

of the 15th centur y and showed evidence of lands known

to be in the North Atlantic p rior to Columbus was indeed

a cause of controversy. Then in 1974, Walter C. Mc-

Crone Associates, Inc. published the results of their study

of the ink of the Vinland Map and declared that the ink

contains anatase titanium dioxide and that it was present

as a pigment that had not been produced until the early

20th century. This prompted Yale University to identify

the Vinland Map as a forgery.

In 1974, another publication supported the attribution

of forgery to the Vinland Map. This publication was

based on examination of the Vinland Map at the Re-

search Laboratory of the British Museum. A report of

that examination follows:

The behavior of the ink under ultra-violet light was of

particular interest. Iron compounds quench the fluores-

cence induced in the background by ultra-violet light and

for this reason, faded iron gallo-tannate ink, yellow-

ish-brown by daylight, will appear black against a bluish

or yellowish fluorescent background under this form of

lighting. The inks used in both the Tartar Relation and the

Speculum Historiale showed this phenomenon whereas

the ink used both for the outline of the map itself and for

the text on the leaf di d n ot sh ow this phenom enon [2 ,3] .

The observations made at the Research Laboratory of

the British Museum and published in 1974 are found on

the Ohio State University website [4 ]. Although the web -

site suggests that the image published by Douglas

McNaughton in his paper in Vikings: The North Atlantic

Saga shows the Map as it would appear under ultraviolet,

the McNaughton paper does not identify how the photo-

graph was made [5]. No one has published an identified

ultraviolet photograph taken of the Vinland Map that

shows the image that resulted from exposure of the

Vinland Map to ultraviolet radiation. The description of

what was observed in the Research Laboratory that is

given above is the information we have. It is not clear

whether the lack of absorption of ultrav iolet fluorescence

was over the entire surface of the Map or rather on much

of the surface. This is not explained. A currently pre-

pared image taken of the Vinland Map under ultraviolet

light would be valuable to include in the discussion.

2. Review of Research on UV Examination

of Iron Gall Inks

At this point, it is us eful to investigate th e literature on the

examination of iron gall inks using ultraviolet radiation.

In a paper by Keith R. Knox and Roger L. Easton, Jr. ti-

tled, “Recovery of Lost Writings on Historical Manu-

scripts with Ultraviolet Illumination”, there is a discussion

of examination of the colophon of a Hebrew Prayer Book

that was erased by the mechanical process of scraping the

J. S. OLIN 515

ink from the parchment [6]. Traces of the writing on the

colophon are still visible; however, nothing legible is

visible. However, according to the account of Knox and

Easton, the scholars who viewed this p age with ultrav iolet

“reported that no characters were visible”. Knox and

Easton conclude that the ink removal may have resulted

in a surface where there was nothing to affect the ultra-

violet fluorescence of the parchment. It is very important

to consider that the reason the Baynes-Cope did not ob-

serve the black appearance of the ink on examination of

the Vinland Map that had been observed in the examina-

tion of the Tartar Relation and the Speculum Historiale

had an explanation other than that it is not an iron gall ink.

Might it not have been t hat i n t he case of t he Vi nland M a p

the ink had not been scraped off in areas but rather had

flaked off? This would leave no iron in the ink in those

areas to quench the fluorescence coming from the parch-

ment thus giving an appearance unlike that normally ob-

served with an iron gall ink.

3. Evidence That Supports Flaking of

Ink from Vinland Map

It is important now to research the literature regarding

the Vinland Map to determine if there is evidence that

the ink of the Map did flake off. One bit of evidence can

be found in Walter McCrone’s report to Yale University

Library in 1974 and titled, “Chemical Analytical Study

of the Vinland M ap” [7] .

In the McCrone Report under Table 2, Summary of

Microanalytical Data there are data for Slide A, Loose

particles from map crease. These data are: size 100

microns, black, grainy (artifact?) and under the column

labeled “Anatase” is the phrase “not obs”. There are no

X-ray diffraction data published in the Report. However

in the column under X-ray Diffrn for Slide A, the

particles are identified as Fe2O3 + FeO(OH). The report

does not discuss how many loose particles were found

and, of course, particles could have been lost over time.

It is important, however, to realize that the iron in the

particles could have come from iron in the ink of the

Map. Although it is important to investigate further

whether there is other evidence of flaking iron gall ink

that has produced Fe2O3 + FeO(OH), it is useful to note

that the author has found data in the literature for the

“Formation of goethite by oxidative hydrolysis of iron (II)

sulphate” [8]. We should not ignore the presence of iron

in particles from the map crease in our consideration of

whether or not the ink of the Map is an iron gall ink.

The presence of iron in the ink of the Map is

confirmed by the analysis of the ink done by Thomas

Cahill et al. [9,10] and by Walter McCrone [11]. It is the

amount of ink that differs from other iron gall inks not

that iron is not present. McCrone’s data for iron are dis-

cussed in the next section.

The table below (Table 1), is a compilation of X-ray

diffraction data for samples of ink taken from the

Vinland Map and presented by McCrone as Table III

[10]. X-ray diffraction data for the particles from the

crease which were identified as containing goethite were

not included in McCrone’s published data and the x-ray

diffraction data for these samples were not included in

the Report to Yale [6].

Table 1. X-ray diffraction data: (a) VM ink samples and

anatase; (b) Calcite and quartz.

(a)

VM VM 9-Ca anatase

11-A-2a ASTM

4-0477

d I/I0 d I/I0 d I/I0

4.23 <5

3.89 10

3.53 100 3.52 100 3.51 100

3.36 10 3.36 <5

3.05 100 3.04 75

2.49 25 2.49 <5

2.435 <1 2.435 9

2.38 5 2.379 22

2.33 <5 2.336 9

2.28 <5

2.22 50 2.24 <1

2.10 40 2.09 10

1.91 40 1.90 25 1.891 33

1.70 10 1.69 10 1.699 21

1.67 10 1.66 10 1.665 19

1.47 <5 1.48 5 1.48 13

1.26 5 1.264 10 1.264 10

(b)

calcite quartz

ASTM ASTM

5-0586 5-0490

d I/I0 d I/I0

4.26 35

3.86 10

3.34 100

3.04 100

2.50 14

2.46 12

2.29 18 2.28 12

2.10 18

1.91 17

a12 - 16 h exposures with unfiltered Cu X-rays; 42 kV and 34 mA with a

28.65-mm camera.

J. S. OLIN

516

4. Summary of Evidence to Date on Nature

of Vinland Map Ink

The identification of carbon in the ink of the Vinland

Map using Raman spectroscopy has been reported [12].

This point has been used as evidence that the Vinland

Map ink is not an iron ink and the composition of the

Map ink has been compared to that of the Tartar Rela-

tion in that regard. It is important to note that in Walter

McCrone’s 1988 paper his table of Comparative Ion

Probe (IMA) A nalyses of VM, TR, and SH Ink Samples,

shows iron as 1% - 5% in the ink of the TR and SH and

greater than 5% in the ink of the Vinland Map. In 2003,

this author explained in her paper in Analytical Chemis-

try that carbon was often added to iron gall ink and its

presence in the ink of the Vinland Map is not proof that

the Map ink is not an iron gall ink [13]. Carbon was

added to iron gall ink as a colorant in the medieval period.

This was done to enable the user to see the location of

the inked line before the color of the iron tannate had

developed. Carbon has also been reported in the ink of

the Tartar Relation which is acknowledged to be an iron

gall ink. There is no conclusive evidence that the ink of

the Vinland Map is a carbon ink based on the identifica-

tion of carbon in the ink.

Soon after Walter McCrone published the results of

his analysis of the Vinland Map ink and his statement

that the Vinland Map is a forgery based on the presence

of anatase in the ink, this author corresponded with him

with regard to the medium that was used to suspend the

anatase and to prepare an ink. In an early reply, Dr.

McCrone stated that he had identified an alkyd resin in

the ink but later he retracted that. In 1991, he visited the

Beinecke to again sample the ink for analysis using in-

fra-red spectroscopy. He reported the presence of gelatin

in the sample he had taken [14]. As this author has re-

ported, gelatin could be present as a product that resulted

from the hydrolysis of the parchment of the Map [13].

The use of gelatin as a medium for suspension of anatase

for the preparation of an ink has not been investigated

and raises the question of how much of the discussion of

anatase as evidence of a forgery is based on a full under-

standing of the nature of an ink that could actually be

used to write.

As the title of this paper identifies, there is further re-

search needed to confirm whether or not the ink of the

Vinland Map is an iron ink, a carbon ink, or an ink made

using anatase and gelatin. One other analysis of the ink

that could be investigated would be to determine whether

or not the organic component of an iron gall ink is pre-

sent. In the 1971 Newbury Library publication of the

Proceedings of the Smithsonian Vinland Map Confer-

ence that was held in 1966, there is a reference to this

author’s publication regarding “The Vinland Map-A

Case Study.” This paper reviewed was what known at the

time of the physical condition of the Vinland Map and

discussed potential methods in use at the time for the

analysis of iron ga ll inks [15]. These include chromatog-

raphy and other analytical methods none of which have

been used with regard to the ink of the Vinland Map.

The suggestion of forgery brought about by the Mc-

Crone identification of anatase in the ink of the Map

captured the attention of most scholars until Thomas Ca-

hill et al. published the results of their PIXE analysis of

the Vinland Map ink in a paper in Analytical Chemistry

in 1987. These authors presented data that were inter-

preted as showing that the concentration of titanium in

the ink was such that the anatase that is present could

only be present in trace amounts. This would suggest that

the anatase was not purposely added to the ink. In

McCrone’s 1988 paper, his reference 6 is to a communi-

cation this author shared with McCrone. This personal

communication from this author to McCrone suggested

that as anatase is formed from ilmenite by treatement

with sulfuric acid, the anatase present in the Vinland

Map ink could have been formed from ilmenite in the ink.

The presence of titanium in other medieval inks sugg ests

that the presence of ilmenite in medieval inks is a realis-

tic possibility. Further investigations of medieval inks to

determine the nature of a titanium containing compound

or compounds is required in order to correctly resolve

this matter [16].

The question of whether the ink of the Vinland Map is

an iron gall ink has been put forward as relevant to

whether ilmenite could have been the source of the ana-

tase in the Map ink. I would suggest that a new in terpret-

tation of the ultraviolet fluorescence results obtained in

the British Museum Research Laboratory and the pres-

ence of goethite in the particles from the crease of the

Map, provide reasons for reconsideration of the Map ink

as an iron gall ink. Further examination of the Map under

ultraviolet coul d be usef ul .

I would also suggest that analyses of other medieval

inks that contain titanium to determine in what form the

titanium is present need to be carried out before conclu-

sions regarding the authenticity of the Vinland Map are

considered. This last research effort is the one that is

probably most easily undertaken following along the

lines of analyses that were conducted on the Vinland

Map ink. It would be reasonable to suggest that docu-

ments analyzed by earlier researchers and determined to

have inks that contain titanium could be analyzed to de-

termine in what form the titanium is present. A project of

this nature would require funding but the methods for

analysis are available.

5. Radiocarbon Date of Vinland Map

Parchment

It is useful to point out here for readers who are not fa-

J. S. OLIN 517

miliar with the literature about the Vinland Map that the

parchment of the Map has been securely dated to the 15th

century by radiocarbon dating [17]. Subsequent to the

conclusion of fo rgery based on the presence of anatase in

the ink, the radiocarbon dating of the parchment was

recognized as being able to show whether a date would

confirm the 20th century origin of the Map or whether it

would be a 15th century date and would continue to sup-

port the need for further investigation of the ink. The

latter is the case. However, papers published subsequent

to the publication of the 15th century date in 2002 have

taken a simplified approach and merely claimed that a

forger used a 15th century piece of parchment. A detailed

explanation of the means by which the forger obtained

the piece of parchment is needed. This must include how

the Map was eventually included in the volume now

proposed as the location of the Map for a long enough

period of time to produce wormholes consistent with

being bound with other 15th century documents. Further

consideration of the 15th century date of the parchment is

important and supports the call for certain forms of fur-

ther investigation of the Vinland Map and the medieval

documents with which it was at one time bound.

6. Recommendations for Further Research

A complete study of the three documents involved,

Vinland Map, Speculum Historiale and Tartar Relation,

has been carried out and reported by Rene Larsen and

Dorte V. P. Sommer [18,19]. These authors also recom-

mend further experiments, in this case for the determina-

tion of whether the three manuscripts had been bound

together in th e 15th century. In this regard, it is impor tant

to note the significance of the discovery by Gregory

Guzman of a copy of the Tartar Relation and of the

Speculum Historia le that were boun d together in the 14 th

century [20].

The technical studies that have been carried out to date

on the Vinland Map have provided a basis for further

consideration of the questions that need to be addressed.

The task is by no means completed and the value of fur-

ther studies is important to recognize. The absence of

iron in large concentrations in the ink throughout the

Vinland Map is important to explain. In preparing ana-

tase from ilmenite in 1974 to demonstrate the possibility

that the anatase in the ink of the Vinland Map could have

originated in some manner from ilmenite in the ink, I

assumed an iron gall ink. The following comment re-

garding my proposal that the anatase in the Vinland Map

ink could be present naturally and not be a forger’s addi-

tion is entirely appropriate with regard to iron. The ref-

erence to anatase in the comment should be prefaced by

stating that the evidence does show that the titanium is

concentrated in the ink [9,21]. Suggestions that the ana-

tase is over the entire surface of the Map parchment have

not been confi r med.

“Examination of her (JSO) anatase by a colleague,

mineralogist Dr. Kenneth Towe, showed that it was very

different from the neat, rounded crystals found in the

Vinland Map and modern pigments, and despite decades

of further work, she was also never able to explain how

the iron would have disappeared from the Vinland Map

ink” [22].

I propose that consideration be given to the explana-

tions presented in this paper regarding the absence of

large concentratio ns of iron in some areas of the Vinland

Map ink. Also, as I stated in 2000, further studies of tita-

nium containing compounds in medieval inks should be

undertaken to pursue an understanding of the source of

the anatase in the Vinland Map ink [15]. In addition, I

propose that the x-ray diffraction pattern of the anatase in

the Vinland Map ink be published. This could provide

data for evaluation of the rounded crystals of anatase in

the ink.

Another area in need of further research relates to the

fact that the origin of the Vinland Map remains unre-

solved. A paper in press in Pre-Columbiana provides

observations regarding that matter by Thomas E. Mar-

ston written prior to his death in 1984 [23]. Further re-

search is needed regarding the provenance of the Vinland

Map and the documents that are proposed to have been

bound with it in the 15 th century.

REFERENCES

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