Socio-Environmental Impact of Water Pollution on the Mid-canal (<i>Meda Ela</i>), Sri Lanka

doi:10.4236/jwarp.2012.47052

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Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 2012, 4, 451-459

http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2012.47052 Published Online July 2012 (http://www.SciRP.org/journal/jwarp)

Socio-Environmental Impact of Water Pollution on the

Mid-Canal (Meda Ela), Sri Lanka

K. B. S. N. Jinadasa1, S. K. I. Wijewardena2, Dong Qing Zhang3*, Richard M. Gersberg4,

C. S. Kalpage5, Soon Keat Tan3, Jing Yu an Wang3, Wun Jern Ng3

1Department of Civil Engineering, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

2Works Department, Kandy Municipal Council, Kandy, Sri Lanka

3Nanyang Environment & Water Research Institute (NEWRI), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore City, Singapore

4Graduate School of Public Health, San Diego State University, Hardy Tower Campanile, San Diego, USA

5Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

Email: *[email protected]

Received April 10, 2012; revised May 4, 2012; accepted May 31, 2012

ABSTRACT

Unplanned urban population growth in developing countries such as Sri Lanka exert pressures on the sectors of water

supply, sewage disposal, waste management, and surface drainage in the cities as well as their surrounding areas. The

Mid-canal is considered the most polluted surface water body in the Kandy district of Sri Lanka and contributes sig-

nificantly to pollution of the Mahaweli River. Health problems in the nearby population may well be associated with

environmental degradation and related to deteriorated water quality. The overall objectives of this study were to identify

the socio-economic status of the community settled along the Meda Ela banks, and to examine the current water quality

status of the Meda Ela and possible impacts of the nearby residents on water quality. Additionally, we propose remedial

measures concerning wastewater and solid waste disposal to improve environmental conditions in this area.

Keywords: Meda Ela; Sri Lanka; Environment; Pollution; Water Quality

1. Introduction

One of the most important demographic trends in the

world today is urbanization, with particularly rapid

growth in developing countries which is believed to be

an important cause of the degradation of natural water

resources. In future decades, almost the entire population

growth in the world is likely to be in the urban popula-

tion, primarily in Asia [1]. With rural-urban migration, it

has been estimated that by the year 2025, approximately

fifty percent of the population will live in the growing

cities of less developed countries [2]. Unplanned urban

population growth exerts pressures on water resources,

and water pollution has emerged as one of the most cri-

tical environmental problems in Asia. Such growth has

major impacts on water supply, sewage disposal, waste

management, surface drainage, and can cause environ-

ment health problems.

Kandy is recognized as a world heritage city by the

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization (UNESCO) on account of its long and ve-

nerable history and its many cultural treasures. A canal

(called Mid-canal or “Meda Ela”) originates from the

overflow sluice of the Kandy Lake, runs through the den-

sely populated city, and thereafter drains into the Maha-

weli, which is the largest river basin in Sri Lanka, drain-

ing about 16% (10,327 km2) of Sri Lanka’s land surface.

Urbanization and population growth in Kandy city has

rapidly increased in the volumes of wastewater generated

in the region to about 20,000 m3·day–1 [3]. Since there is

no proper wastewater disposal system, untreated dome-

stic sewage is released directly into the Mid-canal [4].

In addition, Mid-canal receives wastewaters from small

scale industries such as commercial laundries, textile

dyeing operations, various workshops, a hospital, the city’s

main slaughterhouse, and miscellaneous dischargers such

as petroleum and other oily waste from motor vehicle

workshops. Furthermore, since the canal is topographi-

cally situated at a low elevation, a large number of side

canals drain into the Mid-canal with their heavy pollu-

tant loads. In addition, large water volumes from Kandy

Lake spill over to the Mid-canal, especially during the

rainy season. Therefore, polluted water in the Mid-canal

is a potentially health hazard not only to the people living

nearby, but also to persons the communities downstream.

Previous studies reported on some of the socio-

economic implications of water pollution in the Meda

Ela catchment and found that the awareness on water

*Corresponding author.

K. B. S. N. JINADASA ET AL.

452

pollution issues of the community that lived next to the

Mid-canal was high, although “discharge of gray water

as well as black water by people who live close to the

canal was evident” [3]. However, to date, there has been

no comprehensive socio-economic survey on the urban

population living adjacent to the Mid-canal. The overall

objectives of this study were to: 1) identify the socio-

economic status of the community settled along the Mid-

canal banks; 2) identify the current water quality status of

the Mid-canal and possible impacts of the community on

water quality; and 3) propose remedial measures con-

cerning wastewater and solid waste disposal to improve

environmental conditions in this area.

2. Materials and Methods

Figure 1 shows a map of the study area. Mid-canal

begins from Kandy Lake (on the top right hand corner of

Figure 1) and flows through the city with a 5 km stretch

running parallel to the William Gopallawa road. The con-

fluence with Mahaweli River is at Getembe (on the bo-

ttom left hand corner of Figure 1).

2.1. Socio-Environmental Survey

The target group for the socio-environmental survey

were the residents living along the canal bank of the

Mid-canal. Nearly 350 houses are located along the canal

bank. A questionnaire survey was conducted in Oct of

2010 with the help of Mid-canal community organiza-

tions and postgraduates from University of Peradeniya,

Sri Lanka, through interviews with the 67 households. In

addition, 15 businesses, commercial and public establish-

ments were surveyed to collect necessary data for the

identification of major types of pollutants. The open area

of Mid-canal was divided into 5 segments according to

topography and population density. Three focused group

discussions and key information interviews were condu-

cted to collect socio-economic information. The data were

Figure 1. Route of the Mid-canal (Meda Ela).

analyzed using MS Excel and SPSS statistical program-

mes.

2.2. Maintaining the Integrity of the

Specifications

The template is used to format your paper and style the

text. All margins, column widths, line spaces, and text

fonts are prescribed; please do not alter them. You may

note peculiarities. For example, the head margin in this

template measures proportionately more than is custom-

ary. This measurement and others are deliberate, using

specifications that anticipate your paper as one part of the

entire journals, and not as an independent document.

Please do not revise any of the current designations.

A water quality assessment was carried out at 11

locations along the Mid-canal to analyse 16 physical,

chemical and biological parameters for both the wet and

dry seasons. Additionally, the 11 selected locations in-

cluded five wastewater point sources—Kandy hospital,

Peradeniya hospital, Kandy new courts complex, Kandy

suduhumpola slaughter house, and Kandy hospital pri-

vate laundry. These were considered to encompass the

significant point sources in this region. Sampling was

conducted at approximately equal distances along the

length of the canal. Table 1 shows 11 sampling locations

along the Mid-canal.

Effluent samples were collected on the same day and

at the same time, and were refrigerated (4˚C) and trans-

ported to the laboratory. Temperature, pH, dissolved

oxygen (DO) and electrical conductivity (EC) were mea-

sured using a Multi-Parameter Digital Meter (HACH-

HQ40d, USA) on site. Turbidity was measured using a

ESD-800 Digital Nephlometric Turbidity Meter. Total

suspended solids (TSS) were determined gravimetrically

using Standard Methods [5]. In addition, the samples

were immediately analyzed to determine the concentra-

tion of the parameters: COD, BOD5, ammonia-N (4



N), nitrate (3



-N), and total phosphorus (TP). These

conventional parameters were analyzed colorimetrically

using a spectrophotometer (HACH-DR3800, USA) in

accordance with standard methods [5]. Faecal coliform

densities were determined by the membrane filtration

technique [5] using a Millipore type HA 0.45 μm pore

size membrane filter and enumerated on M-FC medium.

This test was carried out within 24 hours of sampling.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Socio-Environmental Survey

The survey indicated that urban population along the

Mid-canal has steadily increased over the past few years

and has produced a rapid increase in the volumes of

wastewater generated. The total population of Kandy

District was 1,279,028 and the urbanisation rate is 2.5%

K. B. S. N. JINADASA ET AL.

453

Table 1. Sampling locations along the Mid-canal.

Location—Along Mid-canal Point sourcesDistance from the Mid-canal

starting point (km)

1 Outlet of the Kandy Lake 0.00

2 Atupattiya (The point it reappears through a tunnel close to Mallika Studio) 0.50

3 Goods shed (The point it goes underground close to Goods shed Bus stand) 0.80

4* Hospital treatment Plant effluent—I √ 1.90

5* Wastewater from cloth washing tanks √ 1.95

6 Upstream to Suduhumpola Junction 2.00

7* Slaughter house effluent √ 2.20

8 Downstream to Heeressagala Junction 3.25

9* Effluent of court complex √ 4.30

10* Hospital treatment plant effluent—II √ 5.25

11 End of Mid-canal 5.30

per annum [3]. Our survey showed that Sinhalese and

Muslims comprise about 48% and 45%, respectively of

the population along the Meda Ela. The majority of peo-

ple are at a medium income level for Sri Lanka and the

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita was estimated

to be approximately US $2400. The survey revealed that

there is a direct relationship between income and the

quantum of wastewater generated (i.e., increasing as in-

come increases). The education level is relatively good

and 94% of the respondents in the sample had taken for

the Ordinary Level Examination. Results of a Spear-

man’s correlation analysis showed that there is a signifi-

cant correlation (p < 0.01) between education and legal

awareness of waste disposal into water bodies.

Figure 2 shows the sources of drinking water and the

types of bathing & washing waters used along the Mid-

canal. Approximately 87% of people have pipes con-

nected for potable water to their houses. However, some

of residents still use unprotected wells on the canal bank

for domestic purpose. Average family size was five and

average consumption of water per family was 995

L·day–1. About 91% of the families surveyed used piped

water for bathing and washing and only 4% of the people

use common bathing places. However, survey results

also showed quite clearly that residents did not use water

from the Mid-canal for their drinking, bathing or washing

purposes.

The survey also revealed that either most households

along the Mid-canal dispose of their sewerage directly

into the Mid-canal or else there is no well-maintained

effective wastewater disposal mechanism. Figure 3 shows

wastewater and municipal solid waste disposal. Accord-

ing to the survey, the average amount of wastewater ge-

nerated by a family was approximately 798 L·day–1. Ap-

proximately 64% of generated wastewater is discharged

directly into the Mid-canal, and a secondary method of

wastewater disposal is soakage pits (29% of generated

wastewater) that are used to infiltrate septic tank effluent

into the surrounding soil and enable surrounding soil to

treat the effluent before entering the ground water table

or water body. Wastewater from sources such as open

drainage channels, pipe lines, and covered drains were

also discharged to the Mid-canal. The survey also indi-

cated that a majority (91%) of the households surveyed

had toilet facilities and 9% used common toilets. The

Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA) esti-

mated that approximately 1000 m3·day–1 of sewerage or

blackwater flows into Meda Ela [6].

With respect to municipal solid waste disposal, nearly

100 tonnes·day–1 of solid waste is generated within

Kandy city [7] and average household solid waste gene-

ration was 1.5 kg·day–1 [3]. The previous study also con-

cluded that waste generation pattern could be related to

the income levels and consumption patterns of the people

[3]. Our survey indicated that 71% of the Mid-canal

community disposed of their waste in municipal waste

bins or collecting carts, but 29% of them disposed of

their waste into the Mid-canal (Figure 3). The survey

also revealed that even some people who reside outside

the Meda Ela catchment also dispose of solid waste into

the canal. In contrast, the residents who live near the ca-

nal oppose dumping the solid waste into the canal since

these wastes block the water course and create problems

for them.

3.2. Water Quality Assessment along the

Mid-Canal

Overall, results of the water quality assessment showed

an obvious increase in the water quality deterioration

towards the end of the Mid-canal (Tables 2-5). The wa-

ter quality analysis indicated the pollution level during

the wet season was high. The increased levels of several

parameters (e.g., colour, turbidity, BOD5, COD, 4



K. B. S. N. JINADASA ET AL.

454

Pipe borne

water

87%

Common

ersupply

ter

wat

Groundwa

Surfacewater

0% Oth er

Drinking water sources

bathroom

92%

ell

ther

Distribution of bathing and w

ommon

bathing place

id-canal

ashing water

Figure 2. Drinking wate r sources and distribution of bathing and washing water.

Med

Soakage

pit

12%

Open

channel

12%

Pipeline

Covered

drain

Wastewater disposal

a Ela

Municipal

71%

M eda El a

29%

Solid waste disposal

Figure 3. Wastewater and municipal solid waste disposal.

Table 2. Water quality variation along the canal (physical parameter).

Location 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Wet 240 328 316 572 350 325 200 234 380 367 300

(µS·cm–1) Dry 276 378 370 691 604 429 - 330 579 320 317

Wet 22 76 68 230 1620 108 858 207 87 339 135

Colour

(PtCo) Dry 75 69 95 375 1655 85 - 41 40 42 92

Wet 4.3 10.1 12.7 16.2 97.6 16.5 892 37.5 4.3 40.2 55

Turbidity

(NTU) Dry 3.8 5 1.4 14.3 84.5 4 - 0.5 2.4 2.1 3.3

Wet 48 108 40 36 122 91 3073 122 91 584 273

TSS

(mg·L–1) Dry 94 106 123 198 532 148 - 49 27 32 145

Table 3. Water quality variation along the canal (organic matter).

Location 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Wet 5.14 4.24 3.47 1.18 3.80 3.50 3.43 3.68 4.49 5.05 2.00

(mg·L–1) Dry 5.34 3.67 3.89 2.29 3.81 1.37 - 4.24 3.97 2.7 3.15

Wet 4.83 15.5 3.96 62 430 8.7 2646 37 4.26 407 111

BOD5

(mg·L–1) Dry 1.5 27 44 70.5 520 29 - 23 27 88 44

Wet 5 17 4 88 600 10 2766 46 8 610 153

COD

(mg·L–1) Dry 19 32 52 81 741 32 - 28 68 104 56

Table 4. Water quality variation along the canal (coliforms: count 100 mL–1).

Location 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Wet 144 300 300 6500 1000 400 3600 300 40 300 500

Total

coliform Dry 200 400 300 4200 800 500 - 300 200 5800 800

Wet 58 100 100 5400 200 200 2500 100 0 200 200

Faecal

coliform Dry 100 200 200 3400 200 300 - 100 0 4700 400

K. B. S. N. JINADASA ET AL. 455

Table 5. Water quality variation along the canal (nitrogen and phosphorus).

Location 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Wet 1.8 1 1.4 0.5 0.7 1.9 3.6 1.8 4.3 43 27.7

NO 

PO 

(mg·L–1) Dry 2.5 1.6 0.7 28.7 1.6 0.6 - 1.5 2.8 17 14

Wet 3.9 2.6 4.7 5.1 2.3 5.2 7.1 5.4 4.7 47.3 39.6

NH4+

(mg·L–1) Dry 3.9 2.8 6.4 26 2.6 5.9 - 8.7 3.1 19.4 16.9

Wet 0.4 0.3 0.7 3.2 0.6 0.9 4.1 1.7 0.4 9 5.1

(mg·L–1) Dry 0.5 0.2 0.5 7.5 0.4 2.1 - 1.9 0.4 7 3.4

Wet 0.2 0.1 0.3 2.5 0.3 0.4 3.6 0.6 0.1 7.1 2.9

(mg·L–1) Dry 0.2 0.1 0.2 2.5 0.1 0.6 - 0.6 0.1 4.9 1.1

N and phosphorus) in downstream segments of the Mid-

canal indicated the likelihood of deteriorating water

quality in wet weather (Figure 4).

In this study, the pH values varied in the range 6.6 -

7.2 and water temperature was around 25˚C - 26˚C dur-

ing the study period (not presented in the table). For

electrical conductivity (EC), the highest EC value (430

µS·cm–1) along the canal was at Suduhumpola junction

(Figure 4(a)) in the dry season. The EC would likely

have originated from the upstream Kandy Hospital be-

cause of laundry effluents which comprise of high load

of sodium ion [8]. Table 2 shows the level of colour wet

up markedly in wet weather. One of the main reasons for

higher level of colour during rain could be that some

factories or cottage industries discharge their waste into

the Mid-canal during rainy days. As for turbidity (as well

as colour), both parameters increased at the downstream

end of the canal also during the wet season. All the sam-

ple points showed the turbidity above the standard during

the wet season (Figure 4(c)) and most of the sample

points exceed the Ambient Water Quality Standards for

Inland Waters in Sri Lanka: 50 NTU (Table 2).

Dissolved oxygen (DO) was low at the end of the ca-

nal, especially in the wet season (Figure 4(e)). Previous

studies had reported the DO concentration was 5.78 and

2.68 mg·L–1 at the lake-outlet and end of the canal, re-

spectively [9]. That study also reported DO values were

6.03 and 5.40 mg·L–1 at 50 m upstream and 50 m down-

stream of the confluence with the Mid-canal. In the pre-

sent study, DO levels were 3.15 mg·L–1 in dry season and

2.00 mg·L–1 in wet season just before the confluence of

the Mahaweli River.

BOD5 and COD concentrations increased towards the

end of the Mid-canal (Figures 4(f) and 4(g)) and the

change was larger at the last few hundred metres before

the confluence of the Mahaweli River. The BOD5 and

COD values were 111 and 153 mg·L–1 in the wet season

at the end of the canal (Table 3), which are 3 - 5 fold

higher than the effluent BOD5 discharge limit (30 mg·L–1)

in Sri Lanka. The main sources are the Kandy and Pera-

deniya hospitals, along with the toilet discharges from

the Mid-canal residences. Other substantial BOD5 and

COD sources are the slaughter house and hospital laun-

dry. An earlier water quality analysis programme had

been conducted in March 2001 under the Greater Kandy

Water Supply Augmentation Project showed BOD5 to be

from 0.7 to 7.6 mg·L–1 at 500 m downstream of the con-

fluence of the Mid-canal with the Mahaweli River [6]. A

subsequent study was conducted via the Kandy City

Wastewater Management Project [10] and a higher BOD5

ranging from 2.13 to 10.5 mg·L–1 was noted. Compared

to previous investigation, the concentration of BOD5 that

we measured of 111 mg·L–1 suggests a progressively de-

teriorating water quality along the Mid-canal since 2005.

In the present study, the faecal and total coliform levels

varied from 58 and 144 MPN per 100 mL to 400 and 800

MPN per 100 mL, respectively in dry and wet weather

(Table 4). The total coliform values near the hospital

discharge point were very high, at 5800 and 4200 per 100

ml for wet and dry weather respectively (Figures 4(l)

and 4(m)).



-N) concentrations were also relatively high in

the wet season (Figure 4(j)). No fish were observed in

the canal. 4



-N levels were extremely elevated at down-

stream site 11 showing levels of 16.9 mg·L–1 during dry

weather and 39.6 mg·L–1 during wet weather. Table 5

also presents nitrate (3



-N) concentrations in the Mid-

canal, which can be largely attributed to biogenic waste

such as human and animal excreta as well as subsequent

nitrification. Nitrification will occur at dissolved oxygen

levels as low as 0.3 mg·L–1 [11], and since it exerts an

oxygen demand and can potentially result in some of the

oxygen depletion that we observed.

Phosphorus is commonly the limiting factor in fresh-

water bodies in Sri Lanka [6]. The concentrations of total

phosphorus and dissolved phosphate were high espe-

cially towards the end of the canal (Table 5). This sug-

gested substantial contamination from human, animal

excreta and organic waste discharged not only into the

canal but also into Kandy Lake. Phytoplankton in Kandy

K. B. S. N. JINADASA ET AL.

456

0123456

200

250

300

350

400

450

Distance from O rigin (km)

Wet Season

Dry Season

(a)

0123456

100

120

140

160

COD (mg/l)

Distance from origin (km )

Wet Season

Dry Season(g)

0123456

Turbidity (NTU)

D istance from O rigin (km )

Wet S eason

Dry Season

(c)

0123

100

150

200

250

300

456

TSS (mg/l)

Distance from Origin (km)

Wet S eason

Dry Season(d)

0123

100

120

456

BOD (mg/l)

D istance from origin (km)

Wet Season

Dry Season(f)

01234

100

150

200

Color (PtC o)

Distance from O rigin (km)

Wet Season

Dry Season

0123456

(b )

DO (mg/l)

Distance from origin (km )

Wet Season

D ry Season(e)

K. B. S. N. JINADASA ET AL. 457

0123456

Distance from Origin (km)

Wet Season

Dry Seas on(h)

0123

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

TP (mg/L)

Distance from Origin (km)

Wet Season

Dry Se ason

(i)

3–

(mg/L)

0123

456

NO3

--N (mg/L)

Distance from Origin (km)

Wet Season

Dry Season(k)

0123456

NH4

+-N (mg/L)

Distance from Origin (km)

Wet Season

Dry Season(j)

012345

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Faecal Colifor m (C ou nt /100ml)

Ditance from Origin (km)

Wet S e a s o n

Dry Season(m)

0123456

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Total Coliform (Count /100ml)

Ditance from Origin (km)

Wet Season

Dry Season(l)

Figure 4. Water quality variations along the Mid-canal.

Lake, an urban and manmade water body, was examined

for two consecutive years to determine species abun-

dance and composition, and the lake was categorized as

eutrophic due to nutrient discharge [12].

Access to safe drinking water and sanitation is recog-

nized as a human right [13] and provision of clean water

and safe disposal of wastewater should remain a basic

necessity for daily survival and for all economic activi-

ties. Access to adequate sanitation and sewerage systems

in the Kandy urban area, as well as access to appropriate

K. B. S. N. JINADASA ET AL.

458

on-site sanitation facilities for those not connected to a

sewerage system, is a long-term strategy for the Kandy

Municipal Council. In order to address this strategy,

there is a need to develop wastewater treatment facilities

for Kandy city and the Mid-canal catchment. JICA has

funded the Kandy City Wastewater Management Project

(KCWMP), which covers the Mid-canal catchment in

their centralised wastewater treatment project and it shall

be commissioned by 2016. This project is aimed at re-

ducing the current adverse impact on the Mid-canal

catchment due to wastewater discharges. The technolo-

gical appropriateness, economic viability, social accep-

tance, political feasibility and the overall sustainability of

the project shall be subject to scrutiny in the future.

There is no doubt that with the continuing urban

sprawl along Mid-canal, the provision of adequate levels

of drinking water and safe disposal of wastewater shall

become increasingly complex and expensive. This then is

an increasing challenge in coming years and implies that

large financial investments will be required for the water

sector in this area. As a matter of fact, centralized waste-

water management is a very costly part of infrastructure

and its elaborate systems of pipes, pumps and treatment

plants, as well as its institutional and managerial require-

ments are unaffordable in many of developing countries

[14]. Decentralized wastewater treatment is not a new

technology and was in the past decades prevailing in ru-

ral areas worldwide. Nowadays the concept of decentral-

ized wastewater management is far beyond traditional

thinking and solution. It focuses not only on commu-

nity-based wastewater collection, treatment, disposal, but

also on rainwater harvesting, groundwater protection and

surface water conservation. Raw material flow, energy

generation and resource management can also be inte-

grated into new decentralized water approach. Decen-

tralized technological alternatives like (a combination of

appropriately constructed) individual septic tanks inte-

grated with constructed wetlands at the mini/micro wa-

tershed level and managed by community-based institu-

tions [15] may be a viable alternative in the Kandy city

area.

4. Conclusions

Urban water bodies are susceptible to high anthropogenic

pressures and water quality conditions attributes are in-

fluenced by hygienic and economic conditions of the

riparian communities. Management of these water bodies

have been largely neglected in developing countries due

possibly to inadequate environmental awareness and fi-

nancial constrains. Mid-canal is a typical example of

such a water body. Flowing through a densely populated

area in the second largest city in Sri Lanka, it receives a

variety of untreated effluents from point and non point

sources. Urban water bodies like the Mid-canal have lost

their aesthetic value and have instead gradually become

seen by the community as a nuisance and health hazard.

This water quality analysis along Mid-canal indicated

the pollution level in the wet season was high. Dissolved

oxygen was low at the end of the canal and especially so

in wet season. Total suspended solids values had ex-

ceeded the discharge limits at all locations along the ca-

nal. The concentration of BOD5 and COD increased to-

wards the end of the Mid-canal, and the highest BOD5

values were much higher than the effluent BOD5 dis

charge limit in Sri Lanka. Ammonia concentrations were

above the inhibitory limit for fish and no fish were ob-

served in the canal. Total phosphorus and phosphate

concentrations were high towards the end of the canal.

The results highlighted the need to generate awareness

on protecting the environment and developing proper

practices of wastewater and solid waste disposal to re-

duce nutrient levels in the canal water. Promoting waste

reduction, reuse, recycling and final disposal in an envi-

ronmentally sound manner are recommended from this

study. Decentralized technological alternatives may be a

vital, sustainable and cost-effective alternative. In addi-

tion to wastewater treatment and sanitation, systematic

approaches and integrated remedial measures within the

urban development sector have to be taken to develop a

sustainable socio-environmental improvement plan to

mitigate pollution in the Mid-canal of Sri Lanka.

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