The Effects of Obstacles and Age on Walking Time Within a Course and on a Balance Beam in Preschool Boys

doi:10.4236/ape.2012.22009

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Advances in Physical Education

2012. Vol.2, No.2, 49-53

Published Online May 2012 in SciRes (http://www.SciRP.org/journal/ape) http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ape.2012.22009

The Effects of Obstacles and Age on Walking Time within a

Course and on a Balance Beam in Preschool Boys

Kosho Kas uga1, Shin-ichi Demura2, Hiroki Aoki3, Toshiro Sato4, Sohee Shin1, Haruka Kawabata2

1Gifu University, Gifu, Japan

2Graduate School of Natural Science & Technology, Kanazawa Uni ver sity, Kanazawa, Japan

3Kanazawa College of Art, Kanazawa, Japan

4Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, Japan

Email: [email protected]

Received March 26th, 2012; revised April 27th, 2012 ; accepted May 7th, 2012

This study aimed to examine the effect of obstacles and age on walking time within a course (10 cm width)

and on a balance beam in 158 preschool boys, aged 4 (47), 5 (50), and 6 (61) years. An obstacle 5 or 10

cm in height (depth, 11.5 cm and width, 23.5 cm) was placed at the halfway point of the course drawn on

the floor and on the balance beam (200 cm in length, 10 cm in width and 30 cm in height). Children

walked to the end and returned to the original position as fast as possible within the above course and on

the balance beam under three conditions: low, and high, and no obstacle. Walking time was measured for

each condition. Subjects in all age groups were able to walk within a course significantly faster than on

the balance beam; in the former test, boys aged 4 to 4.5 years were slower than boys aged 5.5 to 6 years as

well as the 6-year-olds, and boys aged 4.5 to 5 years were slower than 6-year-olds; in the latter test, the

boys aged 4 to 4.5 years were slower than boys aged 4.5 to 5 years, 5 years and 6 years, the boys aged 4.5

to 5 years were slower than 5-year-olds and 6-year-old boys, and the 5-year-old boys were slower than the

6-year-olds. Walking times under all obstacle conditions were longer in 4-year-old boys than in the 5 and

6-year-old boys, longer in boys aged 5 to 5.5 years than in the 6-year-olds, and longer in boys aged 5.5 to

6 years than in the 6-year-olds. Walking times within the course was shorter than those on the balance

beam under all obstacle conditions. In addition, walking times both in the course and on the balance beam

were shorter in the following order: no obstacle (shortest); low obstacle; high obstacle (longest). In con-

clusion, in-course walking is faster than balance beam walking regardless of age or the presence of an ob-

stacle. Furthermore, improvements in the ability to complete both of these walking tasks may differ with age.

Keywords: Dynamic Balance; Boys; Balance Beam

Introduction

It is important to adequately evaluate the developmental process

of nerve function because the neurological system develops

significantly during the preschool period. Nerve function is

related to coordination, and balance ability is an important

component of coordination. Balance ability is divided largely

into static balance and dynamic balance abilities, with the latter

being the ability to maintain postural stability during various

movements (Aoki et al., 2011). Preschool children learn to per-

form various locomotive movements with age. Dynamic bal-

ance contributes greatly to achievement of these movements.

Hence, it is vital to adequately evaluate the development of

dynamic balance in the preschool period.

Line and balance beam walking tests have been designed to

evaluate the dynamic balance of preschool children (Demura,

1995; Chandler et al., 1996; Bürgi et al., 2011). Since the for-

mer test is very easy, most older children can achieve it within

a certain time (ceiling effect). Meanwhile, the latter test creates

problems where younger children can fall off the beam and be

injured, or are unable to perform according to true ability due to

fear of falling (Kasuga et al., in press). In a recent attempt to

evaluate the dynamic balance characteristics of preschool chil-

dren, the ability to walk on a balance beam in the presence of

an obstacle was examined. As stepping over the obstacle while

walking requires compound movements, this task is more dif-

ficult to perform than merely walking in a straight line or walk-

ing on a balance beam. Additionally, stepping over an obstacle

while walking on the balance beam is more difficult than sim-

ply walking on a level surface. In short, it is assumed that al-

though both in-course and balance beam walking become more

difficult when an obstacle is included, the delayed time is larger

in the latter.

Many researchers have studied the development of dynamic

balance of preschool children (Demura, 1993; Demura, 1995;

Chandler et al., 1996; Bürgi et al., 2011). Demura et al., (1994)

reported that line walking time did differ with respect to age in

3 to 5-year-old children, but was shorter for 6-year-old children

in comparison to 5-year-old children. According to Kasuga et

al., (in press), children aged 6.5 to 7 years showed a difference in

course walking time with obstacles as compared to children aged

5 to 5.5 years, but not compared to children aged 5.5 to 6 years.

In addition, Aoki et al. (2011) reported that, regardless of

whether or not an obstacle was present, walking time on the

balance beam was significantly longer for 5-year-old children

than for children aged 6.5 to 7 years. In short, although a dif-

ference of test methods also affects walking time, results in

previous studies are inconsistent. Developmental trends with

respect to age may differ between the within-course walking

and balance beam walking tasks, with or without the presence

K. KASUGA ET AL.

of an obstacle.

The ability to walk begins at about one year of age, and indi-

vidual differences in ability disappear at about 6 years old.

Even though it employs the same basic walking skills, walking

on a balance beam has high difficulty and even children who

have mastered level walking find it hard to complete. When

stepping over an obstacle is added, the degree of difficulty in-

creases even further (double tasks). As the difficulty of an ex-

ercise task increases, exertion of dynamic balance is also re-

quired for its achievement. In this study, beneficial insight may

be found on the development across age and gender of per-

formance of exercise tasks based on walking with different

difficulty levels.

This study aims to examine the effects of obstacle presence

and age on walking time within a course and on a balance beam.

Methods

Subjects

The subjects included 158 healthy boys aged 4 to 6 years.

Table 1 shows their physical details. The experimental purpose

and methods were explained to all preschool children and their

parents, and their consent was obtained. The present protocol

was approved by the Kanazawa University Department of Edu-

cation.

Procedures

Walking in-course: obstacles (depth, 11.5 cm and width, 23.5

cm) with different heights (5 cm and 10 cm) were set at the

halfway point of a course (10 cm width and 200 cm length) (see

Figure 1). The subjects walked within the course under three

conditions: no obstacle, low obstacle, and high obstacle. The

time was measured from when the subjects crossed the starting

line (line tape length, 10 cm and width, 10 cm), reached a turn

line, to when they returned to the starting line.

Walking on the balance beam: The same obstacle was set at

the halfway point of the balance beam (10 cm width, 30 cm

height, 200 cm length) (see Figure 1). The subjects walked on

the beam under three conditions: no obstacle, low obstacle, and

high obstacle. The time was measured from when the subjects

crossed the starting line, reached a turn line, to when they re-

turned to the starting line.

Children were instructed to walk as fast as possible, to

change direction quickly after reaching the turn line, and to

return to the original position. Subjects carried out three trials

for each test. We repeated the measurement if, while walking,

they fell or their foot touched the obstacle. In addition, if the

above occurred three times in succession, measurement was

judged to be impossible for the subject.

Data Analysis

The intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) for each test was

calculated to examine trial-to-trial reliability.

Three-way ANOVA was used to ascertain the mean differ-

ences of each test, age, and obstacle condition for each walking

time. When a significant interaction or main effect was ob-

served, a Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) test

was used for multiple comparisons. A linear or curve regression

was calculated to examine the relationship between each walk-

ing time and the subject’s age, and the significance of the above

Table 1.

Basic statistics of age, height and weight.

Age (years) Height (cm) Weight (kg)

NumberMeanSD Mean SD MeanSD

4 to 4.5 years 21 4.2 0.1 100.4 3.3 16.3 1.1

4.5 to 5 years 26 4.7 0.2 102.6 4.5 16.8 1.7

5 to 5.5 years 23 5.2 0.1 107.2 4.0 18.0 1.5

5.5 to 6 years 27 5.7 0.1 107.4 4.4 17.7 1.8

6 to 6.5 years 34 6.2 0.1 112.8 5.1 20.0 2.3

6.5 to 7 years 27 6.7 0.1 115.9 3.7 20.8 1.5

Figure 1.

Course illustration.

coefficients was tested. The level of significance was deter-

mined to be 0.05.

Results

The ICC’s of walking times for each condition were 0.61 -

0.81 for 4-year-old boys, 0.64 - 0.83 for 5-year-old boys, and

0.66 - 0.79 for 6-year-old boys.

Table 2 shows the basic statistics of walking times according

to the test performed, age and obstacle condition, as well as the

results of the three-way ANOVA. A significant interaction was

found between age and test factors, between age and obstacle

factors, and between test and obstacle factors. Multiple com-

parison showed that, in all age groups, the within-course walk-

ing time was shorter than the balance beam walking time. The

former time was longer in boys aged 4 to 4.5 years than in 5

and 6-year-old boys, and longer in boys aged 4.5 to 5 years than

in boys aged 6.5 to 7 years. Balance beam walking time was

longer in boys aged 4 to 4.5 years than in boys aged 4.5 to 5

years and in 5 and 6-year-old boys, longer in boys aged 4.5 to 5

years than in 5 and 6-year-old boys, and longer in 5-year-old

boys than in 6-year-old boys. Under all conditions, the walking

time was longer for 4-year-old boys than in 5 and 6-year-old

boys, longer in boys aged 5 to 5.5 years than in 6-year-old boys,

and longer in boys aged 5.5 to 6 years than boys aged 6.5 to 7

years. In addition, the within-course walking time was shorter

than the balance beam walking time under all conditions. Both

walking times were shorter in the following order: no obstacle

(shortest), low obstacle, and high obstacle (longest).

Figure 2 shows regression coefficients of each within-course

walking time. The no obstacle and low obstacle conditions showed

K. KASUGA ET AL.

Table 2.

The basic statistics of walking times according to test per formed, age, and obstacle condition, and results of the three-way ANOVA.

obstacle Low

obsracle High

obsracle

Mean SD MeanSD Mean SD

F-value Post

Course 4 to 4.5 years 5.9 2. 0 6.42.5 7.6 4.3 F1:36.81*Course 4 to 4.5 years > 5.5 to 6 years, 6 year ;

4.5 to 5 years > 6.5 to 7 years

4.5 to 5 years 5.4 1.3 5.91.2 6.7 1.9 F2:346.81*Balance beam4 to 4.5 years > 4.5 to 5 years > 5year, 6year

5 to 5.5 years 4.7 1.5 5.32. 0 5.3 0.9 F3:38.96*

Age × Test

All age Course < Balance beam

5.5 to 6 years 4.2 0.9 4.61.3 4.9 1.1 F4:27.83*No obstacle4 to 4.5 years > 4.5 to 5 y ears > 5 year, 6 year ;

5 to 5.5 ye ars > 6 year ;

5.5 to 6 ye ars > 6.5 to 7 ye ars

6 to 6.5 years 4.3 0.8 4.51.0 4.8 1.1 F5:3.58*Low obsracle4 to 4.5 years > 4.5 to 5 y ears > 5 ye ar > 6 year

6.5 to 7 years 3.7 0.6 3.90.9 4.2 1.1 F6:8.84*H igh obsracle4 to 4.5 years > 4.5 to 5 ye ars > 5 year > 6 year

Balance

beam 4 to 4.5 years 17.8 7 .3 17.07 .5 21.9 8.8 F7:1.67*

4 to 4.5 years No obstacle,

low obstacle < High obstacle ;

4.5 to 5 ye ars No obstacl e < low obstacle

< High obstacle

4.5 to 5 years 11.8 5.8 13.34.9 15.0 7. 0 5 to 5.5 years No obstacle < low obstacle、

High obstac l e ; 5.5 to 6 years No obstacle

< low obstacle < High obstacle

5 to 5.5 years 8.3 2.7 9.22.5 9.8 2.1

Age × Condition

6 to 6.5 years No obstacle < low obstacle、

High obstac l e; 6.5 to 7 years

No obstacle、low obstacle < High obstacle

5.5 to 6 years 7.9 3.9 9.34.9 10.0 4.5 All ConditionCourse < Balance bea m

6 to 6.5 years 5.6 1.7 6.92.9 7.0 3.1 Test × Conditio nBoth best No obstacle < Low obstacle < High obs t acle

6.5 to 7 years 5.8 1.7 5.71.5 6.4 2.8

*p < 0.05, Unit: sec, F1: Age; F2: Test; F3: Condition; F4: Interaction (Age × Test); F5: Interaction (Age × Condition); F6: Interaction (Test × Condition); F7 : Interaction

(Age × Test × Conditio n). F1 (5, 149) = 36.82 , F2(1, 149) = 346.79, F3 (2, 298) = 39.04, F4 (5, 149) = 27.38, F5 (10, 298) = 3.55, F6 (2, 298) = 8.87, F7 (10, 298) = 1.68.

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6.0

7.0

8.0

4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0

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10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0

Figure 2. Figure 3.

Regression coefficients for each course walking time. Regression coefficients for each balance beam walking time.

beam walking for all age groups. In order to complete the test

on the balance beam, a change in physical direction on a path

that is high and narrow is necessary. Because walking on a

balance beam always places the participant in an unstable pos-

ture state, preschool children may find it very difficult. It is

judged that the ability to complete the balance beam walking

test, as compared with level walking (Aoki et al., 2011), takes

more time due to the fact that it is more difficult. In addition,

a linear regression and the high obstacle condition showed a

curvilinear regression. Figure 3 shows regression coefficients

for each balance beam walking time. A curvilinear regression

was found under all conditions.

Discussion

The within-course walking time was faster than the balance

K. KASUGA ET AL.

regardless of the obstacle setting, the within-course walking

time was slower for 4-year-old boys than for 5 and 6-year-old

boys, and balance beam walking was slower for 5-year-old

boys than for 6-year-old boys. Demura et al., (1994) examined

age differences in line walking time using children aged 3 to 6

years old, and reported that it shortens with age. According to

Kasuga et al., (in press), the within-course walking time was

longer for 4-year-old children than for 5 and 6-year-old chil-

dren. On the other hand, Clifton (1978) reported that the bal-

an ce beam walking test score rises with age. Demura et al., (1994)

also reported in the above-stated study that balance beam

walking time shortens with age. According to Harcherik et al.,

(1982) report, balance beam walking speed tends to become

faster with age, with 4 - 5 years old group the slowest, the 6 - 8

years old group faster, and the 9 - 11 years old group fastest,

but sho wed insi gnificant dif ference betwee n the 9 - 11 y e ars old

and 12 - 14 years old age groups. Demura (1995) reported that

dynamic balance develops steadily from about 4 years old,

since balance beam walking becomes faster between the ages of

3.5 - 6.5 years old. Children who develop early can walk at

about 1 year and run at about 2 years of age. According to Aoki

et al., (2011), children over the age of 6 can step over an obsta-

cle smoothly. It is considered that in-course and balance beam

walking can both be performed faster by 5 year olds than by 4

year olds, and faster by 6 years old than by 5 years old due to

an an increase of walking frequency in addition to development

of basic movement ability with age.

On the other hand, it was confirmed that even for within-

course walking, walking time with a low obstacle (for which

difficulty is low) decreases proportionally with age, but both

within-course walking in the presence of a high obstacle and

balance beam walking (for which difficulty is high) show little

reduction in walking time after 5 years in age. Within-course

walking is an easy movement for preschool children over 3

years who can walk smoothly. Takagi (2009) reported that even

preschool children were able to perform a few movements simu-

ltaneously (for example, throw a ball while walking) through

age 6. It is inferred that they can change from simple move-

ments i.e., walking, to compound movements with relatively

high difficulty, such as stepping over an obstacle while walking.

The mean time presented above of within-course walking (no

obstacle condition) was 5.9 seconds for boys aged 4 to 4.5 years,

and 3.7 second for boys aged 6.5 to 7 years, and their time dif-

ference was about 2.2 seconds. In contrast, the mean of bal-

ance beam walking time (no obstacle condition), a high diffi-

culty task, was 17.8 seconds for boys aged 4 to 4.5 years, and

5.8 second for boys aged 6.5 to 7 years, and their time differ-

ence was 12.0 seconds. In summary, the balance beam walk-

ing times with high difficulty were about six times longer

(12.0/2.2 = 5.5) than the in-course walking times. In addition,

differences between the within-course walking times and the

balance beam walking times for each obstacle condition ranged

10.6 - 16.0 seconds for boys aged 4 to 4.5 years, but ranged

from 3.9-5.8 seconds for 5-year-olds and ranged from 1.8 - 2.7

seconds for 6-year-olds. Essentially, the difference was large

between boys aged 4 to 4.5 years and 5 to 6 years.

From the above, it is judged that when adding a balance

beam or an obstacle to the walking path, younger children are

more greatly affected than children over 5 years old. Older

children can achieve certain walking times through improving

the ability to perform compound movements in addition to

improvements in walking ability with age, even if the difficulty

of the movement task is high. Hence, it is considered that chil-

dren aged 5.5 to 6 years can even accomplish very difficult

movements such as stepping over a 10 cm obstacle or walking

on the balance beam. On the other hand, development of dy-

namic balance with age may differ according to the type and

difficulty of the test. However, this problem has not been well

examined. This study clarifies that development of walking

time in children 4 - 6 years old differs by type of test and diffi-

culty of movement tasks. We will need use tests and movement

tasks appropriate to each age level in order to evaluate dynamic

balance of preschool children.

Both the within-course walking and balance beam walking

times were slower in the following order: no obstacle (fastest),

low obstacle, and high obstacle (slowest). When stepping over

an obstacle, children must lift one foot over the obstacle (Aoki

et al., 2011). It is necessary to maintain a stable posture by

supporting one leg to lift it over a tall object.

In addition, greater exertion of dynamic balance is required

to lift one leg very high during walking (Kasuga et al., in press).

As an obstacle set on a walking course becomes higher, it takes

more time to step over, causing the contribution of dynamic

balance to become larger. Hence, it is inferred that the effect of

stepping over an obstacle while walking becomes larger as it

becomes higher for both in-course and balance beam walking.

In this study, due to subjects’ limited walking ability, a nar-

row course (10 cm width) and balance beam or an obstacle was

used. The results of this study describe that although walking

time shortens remarkably with age until 5.5 years in both walk-

ing with high obstacle and balance beam walking, it changes

little after 5.5 years old. It is thus indicated that dynamic bal-

ance related to walking develops until age 6, when children of

this age stage are able to perform plural exercise tasks simulta-

neously with comparative ease. The findings on development of

dynamic balance obtained in this study are considered to be

very useful when considering age level in teaching exercise

tasks to preschool children.

Conclusion

In conclusion, preschool children can walk faster within-

course than on a balance beam regardless of the presence of an

obstacle or their age. Development of the ability to perform

both walking tasks with age may differ.

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