Seed and Information Exchange through Social Networks: The Case of Rice Farmers of Indonesia and Lao PDR

doi:10.4236/sm.2012.22022

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Sociology Mind

2012. Vol.2, No.2, 169-176

Published Online April 2012 in SciRes (http://www.SciRP.org/journal/sm) http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/sm.2012.22022

Seed and Information Exchange through Social Networks: The

Case of Rice Farmers of Indonesia and Lao PDR

Gerlie Tatlonghari1*, Thelma Paris1, Valerien Pede1, Inpong Siliphouthone2, Rita Suhaeti3

1International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Metro Manila, The Philippines

2National Rice Research Programme, National Agriculture and Forestry Research Institute, Vientiane, Lao PDR

3Indonesian Center for Agro-Socio-Economic Analysis and Policy Studies, Indonesian Agency for Agricultural

Research and Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Jakarta, Indonesia

Email: *[email protected]

Received December 7th, 2011; revised January 8th, 2012; accepted February 9th, 2012

The study investigates the structure of information exchange among men and women farmers who were

involved in participatory varietal selection (PVS) on submergence-tolerant varieties in pilot communities

in Lao PDR and Indonesia. The paper shows that network relationships influence the dissemination of

new information on seed. In their decisions to adopt new rice varieties, farmers are strongly influenced by

their kin and friends. The study also investigated social networks by gender in order to gain greater in-

sights into how gender inequalities influence the effectiveness of social capital through social networks.

Results show that information opportunities of men and women vary in terms of exposure to and control

of information. These differences are mainly influenced by their social and cultural setting in rice farming

systems and communities. The paper shows that gender should be accounted for when investigating the

determinants of social networks. Factors affecting social networks differ by gender, and also across coun-

tries. For instance, older males in Indonesia tend to have larger social networks. Women who belong to

large farming households tend to have bigger social networks. Generally, having more relatives is a good

opportunity to increase social networks for males and females.

Keywords: Gender; Participatory Varietal Selection; Social Network Analysis

Introduction

Increasing rice production to ensure food security and in-

crease incomes, especially in unfavorable rice areas, has been a

growing concern of international and national agricultural re-

search and extension systems (NARES) in Asia. For many

years, scientists have been developing improved rice varieties

and associated crop and resource management technologies for

drought-, submergence-, and salt-affected rice areas. However,

despite the availability of these technologies, much remains to

be done in disseminating them to millions of poor rice farming

communities in Asia. Technologies, particularly seeds of im-

proved rice varieties, are disseminated through formal and in-

formal channels such as social networks. Studies have shown

that among poor rice farmers the diffusion of technology and

adoption start in interpersonal network exchanges and social

influences within the community as technology is passed on

from one individual to another. However, understanding of

these processes, particularly social networking, is often ne-

glected and remains a gap related to socio-cultural determinants

of technology adoption.

Past research clearly shows the role that social networks play

in agricultural technology adoption. For instance, in Indonesia,

Case (1992) states that rice farmers’ decisions to adopt the use

of a sickle is dependent upon neighboring farmers’ success with

using the sickle. Palis (2002) showed that the efficient use of

existing social capital among farmers in a village led to the fast,

sustained, and widespread use of integrated pest management

(IPM). Again in Mozambique, Bandiera and Rasul (2006) re-

veal that sunflower farmers’ adoption decisions are correlated

to the choices of their network of family and friends. Most re-

cently in Ghana, Conley and Udry (2010) discovered that pine-

apple farmers adjust their inputs to align with those of their

neighbors who were successful in previous periods. Matuschke

and Quaim (2007) analyzed the impact of social networks on

the adoption of hybrid wheat in India and concluded that the

results from a social network study could also provide exten-

sion agencies and agents with a new set of diagnostic tools that

could fit well with the new extension emphasis on participatory

and demand-driven extension approaches. However, research

on the role of social networking in seed and information ex-

change on stress-tolerant rice varieties among rice farming

households/individuals and also through a gender perspective is

scant. By gaining awareness of existing information on exchange

routes, information providers can act on information opportuni-

ties and make changes to information routes to improve the

delivery of information services (Haythornthwaite, 1996). It is

now increasingly recognized that information on agricultural

innovations diffuses through social networks rather than being

freely available in the village. We adhere to this view in study-

ing the role that social capital may play in facilitating informa-

tion exchange among rural households. Moreover, the roles of

other end users of technologies, especially poor women farmers

and their potential roles as key agents of change, can be tapped

to accelerate the dissemination of rice and rice-related technologies.

In 2009, the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in

collaboration with national agricultural research and extension

*Corresponding author.

G. TATLONGHARI ET AL.

systems (NARES) initiated the project “Development and dis-

semination of submergence-tolerant varieties” in six Southeast

Asian countries frequently affected by typhoons and severely

affected by floods, namely, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, the

Philippines, Indonesia, and Lao PDR. Within this project, a

case study on “Seed and information exchange through social

networks among men and women rice farmers” was conducted.

This case study explored and compared the structure of infor-

mation exchange among men and women farmers who were

involved in PVS on submergence-tolerant varieties in pilot

communities in Lao PDR and Indonesia. The study also inves-

tigated social networks by gender in order to gain greater in-

sights into how gender differences influence the effectiveness

of social capital in facilitating information exchange. In par-

ticular, this study examined the factors that affect the intensity

of acquired social networks at the household level, while ac-

counting for gender differentiation. Of interest to the study is

whether these identified factors are the same for men and women.

Social Networks and Gender

Social concepts such as social networks and social capital

have received a lot of interest when exploring the potential

contribution of personal relationships in technology uptake.

Social capital is deemed as important as other forms of capital

such as financial, human, or natural. Networks facilitate com-

munication, coordination, and the provision of information on

the trustworthiness of individuals. Social networks can serve as

a form of social capital—an important intangible component of

individuals’ and households’ asset portfolios.

Gender analysis in Asian rice farming reveals that women in

Southeast Asia contribute significantly in rice production and

postharvest operations. Although labor participation in rice pro-

duction varies by country, production systems, and other factors,

women contribute about 46% and 60% in Indonesia and Laos,

respectively (Paris, 2009). In Laos, women took over the tradi-

tional roles of men in rice farming, in which more than half of

the rice farming activities such as transplanting, weeding, har-

vesting, and postharvest are dominated by women (Choula-

many-Khamphoui, 2002). Similarly in Indonesia, women do

most of the transplanting, weeding, and harvesting work (Sa-

jogyo, 1985). Thus, women are seen to have a crucial role in

shaping the rice economy of Laos and Indonesia.

Moreover, women do not just contribute to the physical as-

sets of production but more importantly they seek new informa-

tion and technology. Past studies in Nepal and other countries

revealed that women are active seekers of information (Subedi

& Garforth, 1996). Due to gender differences in roles and needs,

men and women have differences in their selection criteria for

rice varieties in the specific submergence prone areas (Paris et

al., 2011). Although returns to men’s and women’s social capi-

tal may be identical, the responsiveness of household welfare to

women’s social capital is higher (Maluccio et al., 2003; Mein-

zen-Dick & Zwarteveen, 2003). Rural women usually have less

access than men to information and new technologies (FAO,

1997; Greenberg & Okani, 2001; Mugniesyah, 2002; Hang Thi

& Van An, 2006; Katungi et al., 2006). They suffer from lim-

ited access to resources, markets, training, and decision-making

opportunities. As a result, women seek formal and informal

networks to cope with the shocks and to make sure that their

views are represented, particularly if formal rules limit their

participation (Meinzen-Dick & Zwarteveen, 2003). Their lack

of access to information and formal networks deprives them of

their potential capacity to make informed decisions in effec-

tively managing their farms and selling their farm products.

Methodology and Estimation Procedures

Identifying the role of social networks and the factors affect-

ing them has been investigated in the literature under various

methods. This type of research is placed under the umbrella of

social network analysis (SNA). The recent literature on social

network analysis supports evidence that social networks play a

crucial role in information and innovation dissemination. Hence,

knowing more about networks and their role will be beneficial

for policy formulation.

When an individual decides to join a network, he/she has an

expected utility that depends on some of his/her socioeconomic

characteristics. This expected utility is assumed to be positive,

which motivates individuals to join a network. Each individual

has the choice of being connected to one, two, three, and more

relatives or friends who constitute his/her “acquired social net-

work.” The intensity of the acquired network is therefore rep-

resented by a series of discrete household choices that could

follow a Poisson or negative binomial distribution.

Following Katungi et al. (2007) in a similar study, we con-

sider that the intensity of acquired social networks can be mod-

eled as a series of discrete household decisions that sum across

an aggregation of choices to a Poisson or negative binomial

distribution. While the Poisson distribution assumes equality

between the conditional mean and variance, the negative bino-

mial is more suited to data exhibiting over-dispersion. The

probability mass function of a Poisson distribution is given as:



λλ; 0,1,; 0λ

PX xZx





  (1)

where λ is the mean parameter that is also equal to the variance,

and Z a vector of covariates. The probability distribution of the

negative binomial is given as:

 



Γλ;

λΓ 1Γλ

0,1,; θ0, 0

PX xZrxrr



 



 

 

 





(2)

where Г represents the gamma function, λ is the mean parame-

ter and the variance is expressed, and λ + λ2/r with r is the dis-

persion parameter. For large values of r (maintaining, λ fixed),

the negative binomial converges to a Poisson distribution. The

negative binomial regression can be seen as an extension of the

Poisson regression that accounts for over-dispersion in the data.

The choice between the Poisson regression and negative bino-

mial regression is based on the test on the over-dispersion pa-

rameter. Alternatively, it is possible to estimate both models

and perform a likelihood ratio test to decide on the model that

best fits the data.

We start our estimation with a pooled regression in which

data for the two countries (Indonesia and Laos) are pooled to-

gether. A country dummy is used to capture country-specific

differences. Next, we estimate the model for the sample of

males and females. Finally, we estimate the model for each

country individually, and also for the sample of males and fe-

males. In this regression analysis, the dependent variable is the

social network (measured in terms of number of trusted friends

to whom the household can talk closely or approach for any

problem) while the hypothesized factors that influence social

networks are gender of the respondent, age, years in school,

household size, area cultivated, number of relatives, member-

170

G. TATLONGHARI ET AL.

ship in organizations, and access to extension services and so-

cial institutions in the village.

Data and Variables Used in the Econometric

Estimation

This SNA study uses cross-sectional data gathered through

focused household surveys of rice farming households involved

in the PVS trials under the project “Dissemination of submer-

gence-tolerant rice varieties in Southeast Asia” implemented by

IRRI in 2009. Data were collected by social scientists from

farmer-cooperators in Indonesia (101) and Lao PDR (95) who

were also cooperators of PVS at key sites. These key sites are

located in the province of West Java, Indonesia, and in the

provinces of Khammouane and Champassak in Laos.

Social capital is formed by participating in an organization or

investing in social networks or both. In this particular study,

accumulation of social capital through social networks received

much attention as most of the seed and information exchange in

studied areas are produced in an informal mode. To measure

the intensity of participation in social networks of the farmers,

the dependent variable is defined as the number of trusted friends

to whom the household can talk closely or approach for any

problem. This definition of a social network excludes relatives

because they constitute a “given social capital whose formation

may be beyond the influence of the decision maker” (Wintrobe,

1995 cited in Katungi et al., 2007). Instead, the number of rela-

tives of a farmer in the village was included as an independent

variable to serve as a proxy for social capital endowment.

Household characteristics such as age, gender, education, and

household size are factors that might affect farmers’ social

networking behavior.

Social Networks and Gender Analysis

This study was conducted in submergence-prone rice villages

in Khammouane and Champassak provinces in Lao PDR and in

West Java and South Sumatra in Indonesia. These villages or

key sites suffer from major environmental stresses that lead to

crop loss. Flooding was one of the major stresses experienced

in their rice farming (Manzanilla et al., 2011). However, sub-

mergence was experienced on varying occasions and in varying

severity. During the wet season of 2009 when the study was

conducted, 94% of the farmers in Indonesia experienced flood-

ing. In Lao PDR, 57% of the farmers experienced flooding in

different stages of rice growth. Flooding was experienced

mostly in the vegetative phase, particularly at the tillering stage

right after transplanting. Some farmers experienced flooding at

varying stages, while others experienced it as early as the seed-

ling stage and in others’ plots flooding occurred during the

ripening stage. Submergence occurred normally for 6 - 8 days

in Indonesia and Lao PDR. Lao farmers experienced the deep-

est flooding, with an average depth of 134 cm (Table 1).

Area cultivated. Farmers in Indonesia and Lao PDR cultivate

an average of 1.3 and 1.14 hectares, respectively. In Indonesia,

all the rice plots are located in lowlands. In Lao PDR, 68% are

located in lowlands and the rest are in midlands. A higher pro-

portion of Indonesian farmers have more access to irrigation

during the dry and wet seasons. Some farmers (41%) have ac-

cess to assured irrigation during the wet season. In Lao PDR,

on the other hand, 99% are heavily dependent on rain during

the wet season. In terms of crop establishment, farmers in In-

donesia and Lao PDR use the transplanting method. Only 5% in

Table 1.

Submergence conditions of farmers’ plots under a farmer-managed trial

in Indonesia and Lao PDR, wet season, 2009.

Flooding duration Indonesia

(n = 101) Laos

(n = 95)

Farmers experience flooding (%) 94 57

Phase of rice growth (%)*

Vegetative phase 94 48

Reproductive phase 96 35

Ripening phase 0 20

Average days of flooding duration 8 6

Average depth of standing water (cm) 79 134

*There are multiple responses.

Lao PDR opt for direct seeding as a strategy when rains do not

come on time.

Varieties grown. Varieties planted in farmers’ fields are very

diverse and some farmers plants 2 - 3 varieties in their plots. A

higher proportion of farmers in Indonesia and Lao PDR, 81%

and 68%, respectively, grow high-yielding varieties. However,

some farmers in Lao PDR (17%) still use traditional varieties

such as Sanpatong, Inthala, and Dor rice, which are used for

special products such as rice cakes. In Indonesia, 29% of the

farmer-cooperators grow submergence-tolerant rice varieties

such as INPARA 3 (IR70213-9-CPA-12-UBN 2-1-3-1), IR64-

Sub1 (IR07F102), and Swarna-Sub1 (IR05F101). A lower pro-

portion (2%) of Lao farmers planted different sets of submer-

gence-tolerant varieties such as IR66876-11-NDR-1-1-1-1, PSBRc

68 (IRRI 119), and TDK1-Sub1 (IR07F289). These farmers re-

ceived submergence-tolerant seeds through the PVS trials of the

project (Table 2).

Household size, age, education, and gender. The sample

households surveyed have a larger household size in Lao PDR

(7) than in Indonesia (5). Women are generally younger than

men. The majority (75%) of households in Indonesia belong to

the Jawa Reyang group, followed by Javanese and Sundanese

ethnic groups. In Lao PDR, farmers belong equally to Lao Lum

and Phouthai groups. Male farmers in both countries are 49 - 50

years old. There is wide disparity in access to education between

Table 2.

General characteristics of the farming systems in Indonesia and Lao

PDR, wet season, 2009.

Farm characteristics Indonesia

(n = 101) Lao PDR

(n = 95)

Rice area (ha) 1.30 1.14

Land type (%)

Lowland 100 68

Midland 0 32

Field type

Irrigated 57 1

Partially irrigated 41 0

Rainfed 2 99

Method of establishment

Direct seeding 0 5

Transplanting 100 95

Rice variety (2008-2009) (%)

Traditional 3 17

HYV 68 81

Submergence-tolerant 29 2

G. TATLONGHARI ET AL.

men and women. Although men have an average of seven years

in school, women have only four years. Men and women have

more farming experience in Lao PDR (24 to 28 years) than in

Indonesia (19 to 22 years). A high proportion (91%) of the

farmer respondents in Lao PDR own their own lands. In con-

trast, 43% of the farmer respondents in Indonesia are still ten-

ants (Table 3).

Size of social networks. The size of social networks and fre-

quency of engaging in different kinds of information exchange

and village activities largely influence the social capital of an

individual. Social capital among men and women varies for the

two countries as the accumulation of social capital is also dic-

tated by gender roles and culture for each country. As shown in

Table 4, social networking and information exchange in Indo-

nesia and Lao PDR are done mostly with friends within the

village, where male farmers for both countries have a larger

social network than female farmers. Lao men and women also

rely heavily on their relatives within the villages. The number

of relatives and friends of the farmers outside the village are

generally higher in Indonesia than in Lao PDR, especially

among women. These results reveal that male farmers are more

mobile than female farmers in Indonesia. Because of customs,

Indonesian women farmers do mostly reproductive activities,

Table 3.

Socioeconomic profile of farmer respondents in Indonesia and Lao PDR,

wet season, 2009.

Characteristics Indonesia

(n = 101) Lao PDR

(n = 95)

Household size 5 7

Respondents (%)

Male only 54 54

Female only 46 27

Both 0 19

Age (years)

Males 50 49

Females 48 44

Ethnic group (%)

Javanese 17 0

Sundanese 8 0

Jawa Reang 75 0

Lao Lum 0 50

Phouthai 0 50

Educational level (years in school)

Males 7 7

Females 4 4

Farming experience (years in farming)

Males 22 28

Females 19 24

Tenure status (%)

Not owned 43 9

Owned 57 91

Table 4.

Social capital indicators by gender in Indonesia and Lao PDR, 2009.

Indonesia Lao PDR

Males Females MalesFemales

Social network

(n = 55) (n = 46) (n = 39)(n = 33)

Strong ties

Number of relatives within the

village (average) 4 5 11 10

Number of friends within the

village (average) 12 6 15 12

Weak ties

Number of relatives outside

the village (average) 3 1 5 7

Number of friends outside the

village (average) 10 2 6 8

which limit them in having contact with other people outside

their village. In contrast, in Lao PDR, there seem to be no diffe-

rences between males and females in terms of mobility.

Seed information exchange. During the survey interviews,

male and female farmers were also asked about their seed in-

formation exchange. In Indonesia, both men and women farm-

ers rely on their friends and neighbors within the village for

seed information. Male farmers also mentioned co-farmers within

the village, extension agents, and formal groups as their other

main sources of information. None of the male Indonesian

farmers received any information from their wives. Eleven

percent of the female farmers mentioned their spouses as addi-

tional sources of information (Table 5).

Membership in formal organizations. Most of the farmers in

Indonesia and Lao PDR belong to a formal group. Women are

surprisingly actively involved in organizations, which are

mainly farmers’ organizations, credit groups, and women’s groups.

This means that women are now recognized as part of the

workforce in the community. However, trends in civic engage-

ment still show that few women are privileged to have access to

different sources of information such as newspapers, printed

publications, agricultural programs on radio and television,

attendance at training events or seminars, and communication

with extension agents. In some civic activities such as the use

of modern technology such as the Internet and cellular phones,

women in Lao PDR more frequently use them than men. How-

ever, it is important to note that these women are few in number

and are mainly female household heads and wives of village

leaders who have somewhat the same access as men farmers.

Involvement in social activities. Involvement in social activi-

ties of men and women farmers is still based on gender roles.

Indonesian male farmers are expected to be in their mosque

more frequently than women. In Lao PDR, where women are

expected to give alms to the monks and offer prayers, women

are seen in their temples more frequently (71 times in a year)

than men. Moreover, since market places are where the house-

holds sell and buy food and other items, more women are seen

in these places than men. Women’s role within the households

consumes most of their time; thus, they do not have much time

compared with men to go to hang around places to chat and

drink with their friends and neighbors after work. Also, more

men attend village meetings as they are traditionally the deci-

sion-makers in their households and in their communities, par-

ticularly in Indonesia; whereas, in Lao PDR, both men and

172

G. TATLONGHARI ET AL.

Table 5.

Major sources of information about new varieties for stress-prone environ-

ments by gender in Indonesia and Lao PDR, 2009 (percentage of responses).

Indonesia Lao PDR

Males Females MalesFemales

Sources of information

(n = 55) (n = 46) (n = 39)(n = 33)

Informal source

Spouse (husband/wife) 0 11 3 12

Member of the household 2 3 5 3

Relatives within the village 9 21 3 6

Friends and neighbors within the

village 22 20 21 18

Relatives outside the village 2 0 3 3

Friends outside the village 1 2 0 3

Co-farmers within the village 11 13 3 3

Co-farmers outside the village 2 2 0 0

Informal groups 4 3 0 0

Village leaders 6 3 36 45

Dealers/traders 1 3 41 27

Others 1 0 0 0

Formal source

Formal groups/associations 12 10 0 0

Research institutions 7 5 26 18

Government agencies 1 0 3 0

Agents/extension officers 17 2 0 0

Media

Community or local newspaper 1 2 3 0

Publications (leaflets, posters) 1 0 0 0

Radio 0 0 3 0

Television 2 0 0 0

women farmers have the privilege to attend village meetings

(Table 6).

Flow of information. Aside from sources of information,

farmers were also asked whether they were passing along the

information they received about new varieties. Male and female

farmers from both countries usually pass along the information

they receive to their friends and neighbors within the village

with whom they can regularly talk because of their proximity to

one another. In Indonesia, where women are more constrained

to their houses to do more reproductive activities, the informa-

tion they receive is passed along only to the members of their

households, friends, and neighbors within the village. Lao wo-

men farmers, who are permitted to be more involved in farming,

do not just pass along the information they receive to their

household members but they also actively pass it along to their

friends and neighbors within (82%) and outside (11%) their

villages. These results can lead to some conclusions that wo-

men can be as active as men farmers in information exchange if

they are given the opportunity to be educated and trained (Ta-

ble 7).

Table 6.

Source of seed information exchange.

Indonesia Lao PDR

Males Females MalesFemales

Sources of information

(n = 55) (n = 46) (n = 39)(n = 33)

Membership in o rganizati on (%)92 67 58 81

Civic engagement

(frequenc y in a year)

Read a newspaper 58 0 28 11

Read publications (agricultural

magazines, posters, leaflets) 14 1 28 37

Listened to agricultural program on

the radio 63 35 102 54

Watched television 63 29 87 67

Used Internet to know more about

agricultural programs 0 0 13 42

Used cellular phone to talk about

rice farming 37 1 10 28

Participated in seminars/training

activities 2 3 15 6

Participated in field experiments

(PVS, demos) (%) 2 2 1 1

Communicated with extension agents32 5 12 6

Frequency of participation in

social activity in a year

Weddings/celebration 22 30 15 9

Places of worship

(churches, mosques) 342 133 40 71

Funerals 18 6 11 7

Festivals 5 11 16 10

Market places 63 105 43 54

Hang-around places

(for storytelling, drinking, etc.) 116 0 36 17

General village meetings 16 2 20 21

Table 7.

Individual and groups to whom information was related by the information

receiver by gender in Indonesia and Lao PDR, 2009 (percentage of re-

sponses).

Indonesia Lao PDR

Males Females MalesFemales

Sources of information

(n = 55) (n = 46) (n = 39)(n = 33)

Household me mber

Spouse (husband/wife) 8 16 9 5

Member of the household 3 4 16 21

Co-farmers

Co-farmers within the village9 4 2 0

Co-farmers outside the village4 2 0 0

Friends and neighbors

Friends and neighbors within the

village 55 42 95 82

Friends and neighbors outside the

village 1 0 7 11

G. TATLONGHARI ET AL.

174

Factors Influencing Acquired Social Capital

Table 8 shows the factors that influence the intensity of ac-

quired social capital based on regression analysis. The first set

of columns labeled “pooled” shows the estimation results when

data from the two countries are pooled together. The next two

sets of columns show estimations for Laos and Indonesia, re-

spectively. In all estimations, the likelihood ratio test on the

null hypothesis that all coefficients are equal to zero is highly

significant, supporting that the included variables globally in-

fluence the size of social networks. The likelihood ratio test on

the over-dispersion parameter r is also significant, indicating

that the negative binomial regression approach fits the data

better than the Poisson regression. The gender variable is sig-

nificant in the pooled regression, indicating that men tend to

have a larger social network on average than women. These

findings are similar to those of Katungi (2006) and Katungi et

al. (2006), who found that social capital is a key factor in in-

formation exchange and that, compared with women, men gen-

erally have better access to social capital and consequently to

information on innovations. The gender variable, though, was

not found to be significant in Lao PDR. However, in Indonesia,

it is highly significant and the magnitude of the coefficient is

about twice that of the pooled regression. Age appears to have a

Table 8.

Negative binomial regression of the factors affecting the size of social networks of farmer cooperators by gender in Indonesia and Lao PDR, wet season, 2009.

Pooled Laos Indonesia

All Male Female All Male Female All Male Female

(n = 194) (n = 98) (n = 96) (n = 95) (n = 43)(n = 52) (n = 99) (n = 55) (n = 44)

Constant 1.1005*** 1.2112*** 1.6453** 2.6580*** 2.5451*** 2.2940*** 0.2631*** 0.2837 0.8713

(0.4056) (0.4992) (0.7268) (0.4690) (0.6196)(0.7792) (0.6643) (0.6863) (1.4417)

Gender 0.5105*** 0.0489 1.1206***

(0.1503) (0.1656) (0.2613)

Age 0.0055 0.0152** –0.0129 0.0064 0.0064 0.0228 0.0074 0.0258*** –0.0152

(0.0066) (0.0072) (0.0123) (0.0082) (0.0090)(0.0158) (0.0098) (0.0096) (0.0201)

0.0186 0.0289 –0.0403 –0.0069 –0.00010.0296 0.0154 0.0220 –0.0183

Years in school

(0.0207) (0.0229) (0.0440) (0.0224) (0.0282)(0.0420) (0.0365) (0.0313) (0.1297)

–0.0441 –0.0588 0.0084 –0.0366 –0.0372–0.0621 –0.0144 –0.0440 0.0125

Household size

(0.0305) (0.0362) (0.0502) (0.0298) (0.0384)(0.0447) (0.0617) (0.0597) (0.1209)

0.0871** –0.0556 0.1303** –0.0793 –0.13050.1410 0.1204** –0.0525 0.1186

Area cultivated

(0.0374) (0.0705) (0.0543) (0.0920) (0.1129)(0.1458) (0.0471) (0.0950) (0.0970)

Number of relatives 0.0390*** 0.0326*** 0.0534*** 0.0307*** 0.0275*** 0.0355*** 0.0812*** 0.0359** 0.1067**

(0.0065) (0.0068) (0.0126) (0.0052) (0.0068)(0.0083) (0.0213) (0.0192) (0.0388)

0.0210 0.2497** –0.1271 –0.3801** –0.3211** –0.5017** 0.0605 0.7330*** –0.0842

Membership in organizations

(0.0908) (0.1329) (0.1113) (0.1538) (0.1725)(0.2705) (0.1232) (0.1791) (0.1672)

Involvement in social

activities 0.0021 0.0083 0.0061 0.0007 0.0238*** –0.0877***0.0012 –0.0006 0.0465

(0.0081) (0.0078) (0.0222) (0.0125) (0.0144)(0.0282) (0.0114) (0.0087) (0.0404)

Extension 0.0034 0.0001 0.0124 0.0151** 0.0114** 0.0202** –0.0001 –0.0045* –0.0973

(0.0022) (0.0020) (0.0114) (0.0070) (0.0122)(0.0087) (0.0026) (0.0022) (0.1156)

Country dummy 0.0066*** 0.5594*** 0.9335***

(0.1653) (0.2063) (0.2699)

Diagnostic tests

LR test all coefficients = 0

[Prob chi sq] 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0510

alpha 0.6803 0.4554 0.8430 0.3726 0.2887 0.3514 0.9111 0.4190 1.7286

(0.0824) (0.0712) (0.1698) (0.0602) (0.0655)(0.0868) (0.1709) (0.0999) (0.5606)

LR test alpha = 0

[Prob chi sq(1)] 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Pseudo R2 0.0737 0.0708 0.0958 0.0794 0.0968 0.0951 0.0726 0.0820 0.0734

Notes: Standard errors of parameter estimates are in parentheses. Significance at the 1%, 5%, and 10% level is signaled by ***, **, and *, respectively.

G. TATLONGHARI ET AL.

significant influence on social networks, at least for Indonesian

males. The older males of this country tend to have a larger

social network. The size of the area cultivated has a significant

influence on social networks in the pooled regression and it was

observed that women who belong to large farming households

tend to have a larger social network. Country-wise regression

analyses reveal that, in Indonesia, only area cultivated shows a

significant effect on social networks. In all models, the number

of relatives has a significant influence on social networks. Since

relatives represent the initial endowment of social capital, this

sort of result is expected. Although membership in organiza-

tions reduces the size of social networks in Laos, it has a posi-

tive effect for Indonesian males, who increase their social net-

works by joining organizations. Given that the variable “mem-

bership in organizations” does not capture the level of partici-

pation of individuals in an organization, the negative effect

observed in Lao PDR could be because individuals are mem-

bers of these organizations with no active involvement and this

does not allow them to increase their social networks. Social

skills contribute to increasing significantly the social networks

of males in Lao PDR but have a reverse effect for females. In

Lao PDR, males participate more than females in market places,

festivals, drinking clubs, and village activities. For Laos in

general, as well as the male and female samples, contact with

an extension service contributes to increasing significantly the

intensity of social networks. In general, households in Indone-

sia tend to have a larger social network that their Lao counter-

parts. This is also true when sample of males and females are

considered.

Conclusions and Implications for Technology

Dissemination

This study investigated the structure of information exchange

among men and women farmers who were involved in PVS on

submergence-tolerant varieties in Lao PDR and Indonesia.

More specifically, this study assessed whether there is a differ-

ence in information exchange among men and women farmers

when it comes to acquiring information about seed technology.

Results indicate that the spread of seeds and knowledge on

submergence-tolerant rice varieties can be enhanced by tapping

existing social networks of men and women farmers. Regres-

sion analysis revealed that the hypothesized variables globally

influence the size of social networks. The gender variable is

significant in the pooled regression, indicating that men tend to

have a larger social network on average than women. The gen-

der variable was not found to be significant in Lao PDR, but in

Indonesia it was highly significant and the magnitude of the

coefficient was about twice that of the pooled regression.

Moreover, it is observed that older males in Indonesia tend to

have larger social networks. The same effect is noticed with

area cultivated in Indonesia. Having more relatives increases

social networks for both males and females. Overall, gender

plays an important role in determining the factors that affect

social networks. This paper provides evidence that the factors

affecting social networks are not the same for males and fe-

males.

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